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PubMed1992

Reuleaux triangle somatocharts.

The three-numeral somatotype index to quantitatively represent human body type has gained general acceptance since being proposed in 1940. The two-dimensional Reuleaux triangle somatochart has been a customary format for graphically representing three-dimensional somatotype data. This paper presents the traditional, quick plot somatochart, the rationale for development of the Health-Carter 1980 somatochart with scaled axes and, based on that rationale, a proposal for a somatochart utilizing a traditional x, y-coordinate axis system. Two completed somatocharts are presented; one showing mean somatotypes of collegiate rugby, football and soccer players, and another depicting phenotypic changes in somatotype after diet and exercise.

Female↗
PubMed2004

Effect of body morphology on standing balance in adolescent idiopathic scoliosis.

OBJECTIVES: The objective of this study was to determine the effect of body somatotype on standing balance in girls with adolescent idiopathic scoliosis (AIS) who are under observation but not wearing a body brace. DESIGN: In all, 74 girls participated in this study to form the able-bodied (n = 36) and the AIS (n = 38) groups, having an average age of 13 yrs. Quiet standing balance was tested using a force platform. Afterward, subjects in each group were divided according to their dominant body somatotype, namely endomorphs (fatness), mesomorphs (muscular), or endomorphic ectomorphs (lean). RESULTS: The center of pressure measured in the anteroposterior position was closer to the heels for the AIS ectomorphic group by approximately 14 mm (P = 0.00497). Only the AIS mesomorphic group displayed a statistically significant 12-mm shift to the right in their center of pressure (P = 0.01211) compared with the able-bodied girls of the same morphotype. In the endomorphic group, the sway area was statistically higher for the scoliotic subjects (P = 0.00839). The distances traveled by the AIS subjects were all statistically longer for all three body morphologic somatotypes. CONCLUSION: Different postural responses seem to be dependent on body somatotypes. The endomorphic AIS girls had a larger sway area than their able-bodied counterparts while maintaining a similar center of pressure position. The AIS ectomorphic girls had a tendency to lean further back than a comparable able-bodied group. This could be emphasizing a hypokyphotic trunk attitude and increasing the risk of spinal deformity progression. The AIS mesomorphic subjects characterized by a large muscular and bony structure had a tendency to position their center of mass more to their right, indicating less postural adaptability and a stiffer trunk.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Anthropometric and health-related fitness characteristics in middle-aged obese women.

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the possible relationships between anthropometrical and health-related fitness parameters in obese middle-aged women. Twenty one obese (BMI > 27 kg/m2) and 12 control (BMI < 27 kg/m2) middle-aged females (35-45 yrs) participated in this investigation. Three series of anthropometrical measurements on the right side of the body were taken according to the O-scale physique assessment system. The Heath-Carter anthropometric somatotyping method was used and the ratio of waist to hip circumferences was calculated. The body composition was measured using bioelectrical impedance method (Bodystat-500, UK). The following health-related fitness tests used were: dynamic sit-up, hand grip, sit-and-reach, single leg balance and plate tapping. Physical working capacity (PWC) was measured using single ergometer test. Obese women possessed significantly higher (p < 0.05) values for skinfold, girth and breadth measurements. While the differences in somatotype indices were not statistically significant (p > 0.05) between obese and control groups, the transformation of somatotype characteristics to the effect sizes (ESs) revealed that these differences were large (ectomorphy: ES = 1.73; endomorphy: ES = 1.64; mesomorphy: ES = 1.71). Relative aerobic fitness (VO2max/kg, calculated from PWC) and dynamic sit-up were higher (p < 0.05) in control subjects, while obese women presented significantly higher values for hand grip strength. The thicker skinfold thicknesses increased the absolute value of PWC in obese group (r = 0.39-0.57; p < 0.05). In contrast, the thinner skinfold thicknesses in suprailiac and mid-thigh significantly increased the absolute value of PWC in control women. There were only a few significant correlations between girth and breadth measures, and health-related fitness parameters. In addition, somatotype characteristics seldom influenced the results of health-related fitness tests. Stepwise multiple regression analysis demonstrated that health-related fitness test items were more dependent on the anthropometrical parameters in obese than in control women.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Contribution to the physique of women with manic-depressive disorder in Hungary.

The purpose of this study was to get new data about the physique (somatotype) of manic-depressive patients. The somatotypes of manic-depressive females (n = 31, mean age: 30 year) investigated show a balanced mesomorphic-endomorphic predominance. The mean somatotype was 6.34, 5.27, 1.39. Previous Hungarian studies showed a meso-endomorphic somatotype in manic-depressive females. The physique of these patients determined by Kretschmer as pycnic did not show significant alteration due to environmental changes. Thus, according to the recent study, Kretschmer's statements (1921) are still valid in manic-depressive females. They are invariably characterized by a pycnic physique.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

[Typology characteristics of preschool-age gypsy children in the Czech Republic].

The study assesses the somatotype (using the method of Heath-Carter, 1967) and its changes in 439 pre-school 3-7 years old Gypsy children and compares results with the situation in 348 non-Gypsy children. A change in somatotype with age and a typical dominance of the mesomorphic component in the pre-school age in both Gypsy and non-Gypsy children has been confirmed. This is in agreement with studies on non-Gypsy children. The above findings and the fact that differences in somatotype between ethnic groups are smaller than those between sexes show that the somatotype and its developmental tendencies in pre-school age are almost identical in Gypsy and non-Gypsy children.

Child↗
PubMed1983

[Body build and soft tissue malignancies].

The distribution of somatotypes in 143 patients with tumors of soft tissues and in more than 980 apparently healthy subjects is presented. A relationship between this disease and body build was established. It was shown to depend upon sex, age and the degree of somatotype expression greatly. Men revealed a clearcut prevalence of the underdeveloped transitory somatotypes in all age groups, ectomorphic occurring in males under 44. In women, the number of pronounced endomorphic somatotypes was relatively high in all age groups, ectomorphic types prevailing at the age below 44 years.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

[Constitutional-somatotopic factors in the clinical picture of alcoholic psychoses and obvious signs of paranoid schizophrenia].

The clinical and anthropometrical methods were used to study the constitutional traits of 240 patients with psychotic forms of alcoholism and 300 patients with paranoid schizophrenia. The somatotypes were assessed by the Rees-Eysenck method. The prepsychotic parameters of alcoholism and the structure of alcoholic delirium were studied in 78 patients, as well as the manifest symptoms of paranoid schizophrenia. The study demonstrated a syndromal modified expressivity in exo- and endogenous processes, depending upon the somatotypical constitution. Simple syndromes were more frequently found in patients with a pyknic somatotype, and complicated in normosthenical and asthenic types of body built. It is suggested that the constitutional and somatotypical factors be included into the multifactorial analysis of the syndrome structure and prognosis in the development of the psychosis.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Anthropometric characteristics and performance related predictors of success in adolescent pole vaulters.

The purpose of this study was to determine the anthropometric characteristics of skilled adolescent pole vaulters and to examine the strength of anthropometric and physical performance variables in predicting vaulting performance (N = 87; age group range 13-18 years). The vaulting height of the subjects ranged from 1.98 to 4.72m (mean 3.58 +/- s.d. 0.536m). The vaulters were classified as ectomorphic mesomorphs with an average somatotype of 1.6-4.2-3.5 (s.d. +/- 0.38-0.94-1.00). One way analysis of variance showed that while measures of stature, physical performance and vault performance significantly increased (p < 0.05) across age groups, somatotype and sum of skinfolds remained stable. Stepwise regression analysis showed the best predictor of vaulting performance was hand grip height (R2 = 0.78, p < 0.05). Correlation analysis showed that grip height was strongly correlated to vault height (r = 0.88), age (r = 0.72), body mass (r = 0.71), standing long jump (r = 0.69), running speed (r = 0.69), biceps girth (r = 0.66), standing height (0.65), calf girth (0.61) and pull-ups (r = 0.44). It was concluded that the somatotype of skilled young pole vaulters is similar to that of junior Olympic and adult Olympic vaulters, and that this somatotype is a selective factor for this event as early as thirteen years of age. Proficiency in pole vaulting is best predicted by grip height, which is strongly correlated to stature and simple field measures of leg speed and power, and upper body muscular endurance. These findings may be applied to the selection and training of young pole vaulters.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Somatic characteristics and cardiovascular risk factors in growth hormone deficiency: a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study of the effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone.

The purpose of the present study was to identify the effect of treatment with recombinant human growth hormone (rhGH) on seven somatic characteristics and eight clinical cardiovascular risk factors. Twenty-seven male and 24 female patients between the ages of 21 and 60 years were examined. The investigation was a double-blind, placebo-controlled study of 12 months duration. Patients were assigned randomly to treatment (T) and placebo (P) groups. In the first 6 months group T received rhGH and group P placebo. In the second 6 months both groups received rhGH. Complete data were available for 23 males and 20 females. Increments were calculated between 6 months -BL (increment 1) and 12-6 months (increment 2) in both T and P groups. Apart from the somatotype, data were analysed with a 2 x 2 mixed analysis of variance (ANOVA) using treatment (rhGH and placebo) and time (increments 1 and 2). Somatotype data were analysed using a 2 x 3 multivariate ANOVA. Three significant interactions were identified in males: waist circumference (P = 0.006), trunk fat (P = 0.0001), and conicity index (P = 0.001). The only significant interaction in females was trunk fat (P = 0.006). In general, treatment and placebo groups responded differently by time and treatment. Responses were similar in males and females. In the first 6 months when group P was on placebo, waist circumference, trunk fat, and conicity index increased slightly; with group T on rhGH somatic variables declined markedly. In the second 6 months when both groups received rhGH there was a marked decline in group P and a continued decline (but less steeply) in group T. In males there were significant decreases in endomorphy in group T and increases in mesomorphy in group P. In females the somatotype remained stable. There were no significant interactions in clinical cardiovascular risk factors in either males or females. Favourable responses occurred in male and female lipid profiles, although these were not significant. It was concluded that in males waist circumference, trunk fat, conicity index, and somatotype responded significantly to treatment with rhGH; in females the only significant response was trunk fat.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Relationships of anthropometrical parameters and body composition with bone mineral content or density in young women with different levels of physical activity.

The aim of the study was to test the possible relationships of anthropometrical parameters, somatotype and body composition parameters with bone mineral content (BMC) and bone mineral density (BMD, total body, the dominant arm distal radius, antero-posterior lumbar spine--L2-L4, femoral neck) in strength- (n=33) and endurance- (n=32) trained and sedentary normal-weight (n=41) and overweight (n=23) young females. Their body height and mass were measured and BMI calculated. Nine skinfolds, thirteen girths, eight lengths and eight breadths/lengths were measured. Somatotype components were calculated according to Carter and Heath (1990). Whole body fat percentage, fat mass, lean body mass (LBM), BMC and BMD were measured by DXA. The relationship of different BMC and BMD values at each of the regions studied to the different anthropometrical and body composition parameters were analysed by using a stepwise multiple regression analysis. In all groups, BMC is highly dependent on the body mass (31.5-81.2%, R2x100). In the endurance-trained females, BMD is dependent on LBM, especially in both weight-bearing sites (66.2% in L2-L4 and 35.3% in the femoral neck). LBM explained 77.0% of the total variance of BMC in this group. BMC in the strength-trained group is dependent on the lower body anthropometrical parameters--thigh skinfold (18.2%), calf girth (25.2%), trochanterion length (24.1%) and sitting height (51.4%). From the endurance-trained group, BMC is dependent on hip girth (75.2%) or in combination with ankle girth (81.2%). From the length parameters, trochanterion is the most important (55.8%) and from breadths/lengths, sitting height (57.1%). In the normal-weight females, BMC is dependent on the calf girth (31.1%), trochanterion length (28.2%) and sitting height (29.8%). In the overweight group, only chest girth (20.1%) and biacromial breadth/length (27.0%) had a relationship with BMC. From somatotype components, only ectomorphy explained BMD in the endurance-trained females in the femoral neck (21.3%) and in the lumbar spine (20.9%). We can conclude that from the body composition parameters, LBM is a powerful predictor of BMC and BMD. From the anthropometrical parameters measured, lower body parameters are the most important. Somatotype components (ectomorphy) had a relationship with BMD only in the endurance-trained group. There are some differences that depend on the specific physical activity field. In the endurance-trained group, the anthropometry is more important than in the strength-trained group.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

[The onset of menarche and the course of menstrual cycles in student apprentices in Slovakia. I].

Within the framework of the research task on the physical fitness of apprentices the author assessed the standard of somatic and functional development: 1. By means of a questionnaire which was completed with the probands. After consultation with the school medical officer it was revealed that secondary school students are more resistant to intercurrent diseases than apprentices. 2. Some anthropometric parameters were in favour of the students at the 1% and 5% level of significance. 3. By means of anthropometric parameters somatotypes of apprentices (n = 230) were assessed and somatotypes of students (n = 196). The apprentices have somatotypes with a predominant endomorphic component. The students have a lower body fat ratio and belong thus among somatotypes with a predominating ectomorphic component are are more physically fit. 4. The students have the lowest age of menarche, but essentially there are no great differences between the mean age of menarche between students and apprentices. The menstrual cycle of apprentices is regular in 89.56% and in students in 88.77%. During menstrual bleeding the apprentices suffer in 44.22% from restlessness, poorer concentration and dislike of work. The mental state of the students is more stable. The investigation is still continuing.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Studies of human physique and sexual attractiveness: sexual preferences of men and women in China.

Men and women at Northwest University (n = 631), Xi'an, China, were asked to rate the attractiveness of male or female figures manipulated to vary somatotype, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), secondary sexual traits, and other features. In study 1, women rated the average masculine somatotype as most attractive, followed by the mesomorphic (muscular), ectomorphic (slim), and endomorphic (heavily built) somatotypes, in descending order of preference. In study 2, the amount and distribution of masculine trunk (chest and abdominal) hair were altered progressively in a series of front-posed figures. Women rated figures with no or little trunk hair as most attractive. Study 3 assessed the attractiveness of front-posed male figures which varied only in length of their nonerect penis. Numerical ratings for this trait were low, but moderate lengthening of the penis (22% or 33% above average) resulted in a significant increase in scores for attractiveness. In study 4, Chinese men rated the attractiveness of back-posed female images varying in waist-to-hip ratio (WHR from 0.5-1.0). The 0.6 WHR figure was most preferred, followed by 0.7, while figures with higher ratios (0.9 or 1.0) were significantly less attractive. Study 5 rated the attractiveness of female skin color: men expressed a marked preference for images which were lighter in color, as compared to images of average or darker skin colors. These results, the first of their kind reported for a Chinese population, support the view that sexual selection has influenced the evolution of human physique and sexual attractiveness in men and women.

Asian People↗
PubMed1993

Body size and shape: a longitudinal investigation of active and sedentary boys during adolescence.

The aims of the present study were to contrast the distance and velocity curves for height, body mass and somatotype between active (n = 33) and sedentary (n = 15) boys studied annually between 12 and 15 years. Raw measurements were rescaled and aligned according to peak velocity in height (PHV). The sedentary boys were taller up to and including PHV, active boys being taller after PHV (P > 0.05). The sedentary group had a PHV of 8.5 +/- 1.2 cm year-1 and the active group one of 9.5 +/- 1.5 cm year-1 (P < 0.05). Their ages at PHV were 14.1 +/- 0.8 and 14.2 +/- 0.9 years, respectively (P > 0.05). The active boys were lighter before PHV but heavier afterwards. Peak body mass velocities (PBMV) were larger for the active children (9.1 +/- 2.7 kg year-1) compared to the sedentary children (8.0 +/- 2.6 kg year-1) (P > 0.05). At PBMV, the active boys were aged 14.3 +/- 0.8 years and the sedentary boys 14.5 +/- 0.7 years (P > 0.05). The representative somatotype for the sedentary group was a mesomorphic ectomorph. For the active group, ectomorphic mesomorphs and mesomorphic ectomorphs were the most prominent. The sedentary children (overall mean 2.4-3.4-4.7) showed an increase in endomorphy and a decrease in mesomorphy and ectomorphy. In contrast, the active children (overall mean 2.3-3.9-4.0) demonstrated reduced endomorphy with mesomorphy and ectomorphy remaining fairly uniform. Velocities showed mesomorphy to be the most stable component in both groups (-3.0 to +0.1 units year-1). Endomorphy and ectomorphy fluctuated to a greater extent but never quite reached a velocity of one-half unit a year. Whole somatotype analyses identified significant differences between groups at PHV (P < 0.05), individual component analyses at PHV and +1 year PHV (P < 0.05).

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Statistical and physiological distinction of constitution types.

Most conventional human health and function evaluation methods are based on a traditional notion that all the population characteristics follow the Gaussian distribution law with the parameters M and s forming the basis of the norm conception. But some known facts contradict this idea that requires checking the statistical homogeneity of population characteristics. Analysis of statistical distribution and central tendencies for simple measured indices in population and somatotypes samples proved an idea of natural population distinctions by a broad set of morpho-functional features (by means of 23-D matrix cluster analysis for different indices) and provided the scientific grounds to use a constitutional approach in human sciences and physical education as well. Gaussian distribution law was found within somatotype groups permitting the use of its parameters for norm evaluation. In practice for somatotype determination the relative girth body dimensions (normalized by body height) were proved to be preferable.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Constitution and reactivity of the organism.

A new principle of somatotyping according to the set of the most informative anthropometric indices is offered. For the first time we carried out a comparative analysis of anthropometric indices of physical development, of cardiovascular system functioning and its vegetative regulation for the representatives of different somatotypes. The purpose of the analysis was to define constitutional peculiarities of adaptation reactions in young males and females to the deficiency of vital macro- and microelements in soils and drinkable water of the Southern region of Belarus. Typological specificity of organism reactivity to the unfavorable geochemical situation of the Southern region of Belarus was revealed in young males and females in different degrees of tension in adaptation processes. The suggested approach to somatotyping has allowed us to define more precisely the constitutional properties of organism reactivity in a discomfort environment.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Performance parameters in children and adolescent athletes.

Success in sports, as measured by competitive performance, is dependent upon a number of significant mental and physical components. Somatotype, motor skills, age, nutritional status, physiology, psychology, training level, genetic endowment, and injury risk are the major independent variables influencing performance. Unfortunately, the data available in this area of sports medicine are not always reliable or allow interstudy comparisons. This article reviews the historical and current information used to predict human performance in sports at the childhood and adolescent level. Although mesomorphy, and to a lesser extent ectomorphy, are positively associated with enhanced performance, successful athletes tend to have or acquire somatotypes characteristic of individuals already successful in a particular sport. For the most part, motor skills are age (chronological) and gender dependent. In general, the efficiency of movement progressively improves throughout childhood and into early adolescence and is highly dependent on environmental influences. A lower anaerobic and aerobic capacity reduces performance in the child and adolescent. Nonetheless, regular training can favourably improve motor skills and physiological fitness parameters. The relationship between endurance performance and aerobic capacity, however, is not strong at any age during childhood. Performance levels are reduced if nutrition is inadequate. A number of mental factors such as aggression, spirit, and self-confidence are also related to sports performance, although their correlation is unclear at present. Performance is influenced by the effect of genetic factors on specific traits in 30 to 85% of cases. Risk factors that negatively impact on performance levels include a history of previous injury, excessive training schedules, decreased fitness endurance, joint looseness or tightness, and certain personality traits. It is suggested that sport performance may be optimised by the early identification of individuals with positive genetic and somatotypic markers and negative risk factors. Motor skill development and physiological parameters can then be maximised by using regular, non-excessive training protocols, sound nutrition patterns, a safe environment and protective gear. Further investigations in this important area of sports medicine are essential in order to more fully characterise those criteria essential for successful sports participation. In particular, such studies should be purely longitudinal and should control for multiple confounding factors operating at different times.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Morphologic and anthropometric characteristics of high level Dutch korfball players.

In this study a morphologic and anthropometric characterisation of Dutch korfball players (N = 36) is performed. Data, compared with those of other sports populations, showed that (1) korfball athletes are smaller and lighter than basketball and volleyball players but heavier and taller than other team-sport players; (2) korfball players have less relative body fat, more lean body mass, more limb fat, and less or similar trunk fat than the other athletes. (3) Male korfball players presented a somatotype (1.9-4.4-3.4) similar to endurance athletes and an endomorphic value lower than or similar to the other athletes. (4) The only apparent similarity between female korfball somatotype (3.2-4.0-2.8) and other athletes' somatotypes is the dominance of mesomorphy.

Adult↗
PubMed1975

Effects of stressful underwater demolition training on body structure.

Antropometric measurements and Heath-Carter somatotype ratings were made on 32 subjects upon entry into a U.S. Navy underwriter demolition team training program. Twenty subjects successfully completed the 4-month program and were remeasured. Comparisons were made between initial and final scores for those completing training, and between initial scores for trainees who successfully completed the program and scores for those men who dropped from training, for the following variables: somatotype as a whole, three somatoptype components, height, weight, height/weight.33, sum of skinfolds, arm and calf girths, and bone breadths. No differences were seen between successful and unsuccessful trainees, on any variable, when results from the pre-training measurements were compared. Successful trainees did not change in height or bone breadths, but showed decreased skinfolds and height/weight.33, along with increased weight and girths. Successful trainees' somatotypes changed, with a decrease in endomorphy and ectomorphy, and an increase in mesomorphy.

Adult↗