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PubMed2001

Social phobia and avoidant personality disorder as related to parental history of social anxiety: a general population study.

Using a validated and DSM-IV compatible questionnaire, the present study related family history of excessive social anxiety to social phobia and avoidant personality disorder (APD) in epidemiologically identified probands in the general population. Probands met diagnostic criteria for social phobia with or without APD and APD with or without social phobia. A two- to three-fold increased relative risk of social anxiety was observed for all diagnostic groups. Increasing severity in probands by varying diagnostic criteria did not affect the relative risk. Because familial aggregation of social anxiety was not modulated by Axis I or II diagnosis or diagnostic cut-off levels, data imply that social phobia and APD may represent a dimension of social anxiety rather than separate disorders. Thus, having an affected family member is associated with a two- to three-fold risk increase for both social phobia and APD.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Group social skills training or cognitive group therapy as the clinical treatment of choice for generalized social phobia?

This study focused on determining whether group social skills training (SST) or cognitive-behavioral group therapy (CBT) works best to treat social anxiety in psychiatric patients. Participants were psychiatric outpatients with a Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.) diagnosis of generalized social phobia (GSP). A matching procedure was used to obtain two equivalent samples in both conditions (N = 48). It was shown that both SST and CBT were effective in reducing social and general anxiety, decreasing the severity of psychopathology and increasing social skills and self-control. As for differential effects, patients participating in SST experienced a significantly greater reduction of social anxiety and a greater increase in social skills than those in CBT. Moreover, it was shown that social anxiety and social skills scores of the SST group at follow-up reached the level of a normal reference group, whereas those of the CBT participants improved only to that of nonsocially anxious patients with anxiety disorders. Finally, it was revealed that commitment to and satisfaction with treatment of participants in both conditions did not differ. Keeping in mind that this was a quasiexperimental study, the authors concluded that in a clinical setting, group SST may be the best way to treat psychiatric patients with GSP, where comorbidity is the rule rather than the exception.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Probability and cost estimates for social and physical outcomes in social phobia and panic disorder.

Individuals with Social Phobia (SP) (n = 23) and Panic Disorder (n = 22), and a non-anxious comparison (NAC) group (n = 62) rated the probability and cost of negative outcomes in the physical and the social domains. Overall, participants rated physical events as less probable but more costly than social events. Compared to the non-anxious group, participants with Social Phobia made significantly higher probability and cost estimates for social events, but not for physical events. Multiple regression analyses demonstrated that perceived cost of negative social events was the strongest unique predictor of scores on the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale (FNE). Participants with Panic Disorder made significantly higher probability and cost estimates for both physical and social outcomes, compared to non-anxious participants. Both physical probability and social cost estimates predicted scores on the Body Sensations Questionnaire (BSQ). Findings support the disorder-specificity of cognitive biases in Social Phobia, but suggest that individuals with Panic Disorder have a wider range of judgment biases than previously thought.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Factor structure of social fears: The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale.

In the assessment of social anxiety, investigators often differentiate between social interactional anxiety and performance anxiety. The Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS), a clinician-administered measure of social anxiety and avoidance, was originally developed with separate subscales for the assessment of fear and avoidance of situations involving social interaction and performance/observation by others. Separate confirmatory factor analyses of the LSAS fear and avoidance ratings demonstrated that this two-factor model did not provide an adequate fit to the data, suggesting the need to further investigate the underlying structure of the LSAS. Separate exploratory common factor analyses of the fear and avoidance ratings yielded four similar factors for each: (1) social interaction, (2) public speaking, (3) observation by others, and (4) eating and drinking in public, which demonstrated convergent and discriminant validity with other measures of social anxiety. These findings suggest that there are four global categories of social fear assessed by the LSAS, and that while social interaction anxiety appears to be unifactorial, fear of performance/observation situations may be multifactorial.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Social anxiety and social comparison: differential links with restrictive and bulimic attitudes among nonclinical women.

This study investigated the relationship of two social psychological constructs (social anxiety and social comparison) with bulimic and restrictive eating attitudes among nonclinical women. Eighty young women completed a measure of social anxiety (the Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale, FNE), a measure of social comparison (the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure, INCOM), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Eating Disorders Inventory (EDI). The results indicate a differential link between the two different social processes and the nature of eating psychopathology. Specifically, heightened social anxiety predicted drive for thinness, while levels of social comparison predicted bulimic attitudes. The findings support a model where the two social processes are each associated with different patterns of eating pathology.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1990

Social cognition and impaired social interaction in people with severe learning difficulties.

Social skills training has focused on 'performance' or overt behaviour, rather than on the other components of successful social functioning: motivation and goals, analysis of social information, and performance feedback, Some basic aspects of this 'analysis' or 'social cognition' component were compared in a preliminary study of 25 teenagers and young adults with severe learning difficulties, whose social interaction was categorized as either 'impaired' or 'appropriate'. As predicted from the literature on autistic children, there were no differences between the groups on tasks involving recognition of the visual aspects of the concept of self or perceptual role-taking. It is suggested that social impairments do not reflect social cognitive abilities which are 'lower level' (i.e. can be solved on the basis of information available to the senses). Contrary to expectations, on the four individual tasks of affective role-taking, which is 'higher level', since it requires inferences to be made about the inner emotional state of another person, the differences between the groups were not significant. However, the results were in the predicted direction, and when scores on the tasks were combined, the overall performance of the socially impaired group was significantly poorer (P less than 0.05). It is suggested that the results from this aspect of social cognition might be attributed either to methodological difficulties or to differences between autistic children and the present sample. The clinical implications of the findings of the study are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Evolution and the American social sciences: An evolutionary social scientist's view.

American social scientists rarely ever use evolutionary concepts to explain behavior, despite the potential of such concepts to elucidate major social problems. I argue that this observation can be understood as the product of three influences: an ideologically narrowed political liberalism; a fear of ''Social Darwinism'' as a scientific idea, rather than a scientific apostasy; and a widely believed criticism of evolutionary thinking as deterministic, reductionistic, and Panglossian. I ask what is to be done to encourage social scientists to learn and to apply evolutionary lessons. I answer with four solutions. First, evolutionary social scientists should more effectively educate their non-evolutionary students and colleagues. Second, they should publicize, even popularize, accessible refutations of perennially misleading criticisms. Third, they should more credibly assure skeptics that evolutionary theory not only keeps the ''social'' in social science but better explains social behavior than can any individual-level theory, such as rational-choice theory. Fourth, they should recall that biology took generations to become Darwinian, and they must understand that the social sciences may take as long to become evolutionary.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1999

The social class determinants of income inequality and social cohesion.

The authors argue that Wilkinson's model omits important variables (social class) that make it vulnerable to biases due to model mis-specification. Furthermore, the culture of inequality hypothesis unnecessarily "psychopathologizes" the relatively deprived while omitting social determinants of disease related to production (environmental and occupational hazards) and the capacity of the relatively deprived for collective action. In addition, the hypothesis that being "disrespected" is a fundamental determinant of violence has already been refuted. Shying away from social mechanisms such as exploitation, workplace domination, or classist ideology might avoid conflict but reduce the income inequality model to a set of useful, but simple and wanting associations. Using a nonrecursive structural equation model that tests for reciprocal effects, the authors show that working-class position is negatively associated with social cohesion but positively associated with union membership. Thus, current indicators of social cohesion use middle-class standards for collective action that working-class communities are unlikely to meet. An erroneous characterization of working-class communities as noncohesive could be used to justify paternalistic or punitive social policies. These criticisms should not detract from an acknowledgment of Wilkinson's investigations as a leading empirical contribution to reviving social epidemiology at the end of the century.

Authoritarianism↗
PubMed1997

Hypercortisolism associated with social subordinance or social isolation among wild baboons.

BACKGROUND: The phenomena of basal hypercortisolism and of dexamethasone resistance have long intrigued biological psychiatrists, and much is still unknown as to the causes and consequences of such adrenocortical hyperactivity in various neuropsychiatric disorders. We have analyzed basal cortisol concentrations and adrenocortical responsiveness to dexamethasone in a population of wild baboons living in a national park in Kenya. We tested whether social subordinance in a primate is associated with dexamethasone resistance. Furthermore, we examined whether individual differences in adrenocortical measurements were predicted by the extent of social affiliation in these animals. METHODS: Seventy yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) were anesthetized and injected with 5 mg of dexamethasone; the cortisol response was monitored for 6 hours. The animals were of both sexes in a range of ages and had known ranks in the dominance hierarchies within their troops. Extensive behavioral data were available for a subset of 12 adult males who were anesthetized under circumstances that also allowed for the determination of basal cortisol concentrations. RESULTS: The socially subordinate baboons were less responsive to dexamethasone than were the dominant ones; as one manifestation of this, postdexamethasone cortisol values were more than 3 times higher in the dozen lowest-ranking animals compared with the dozen highest. In addition, socially isolated males had elevated basal cortisol concentrations and showed a trend toward relative dexamethasone resistance. CONCLUSIONS: Our findings indicate that social status and degree of social affilitation can influence adrenocortical profiles; specifically, social subordinance or social isolation were associated in our study with hypercortisolism or feedback resistance.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Social play in bonobos (Pan paniscus) and chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Implications for natural social systems and interindividual relationships.

This study compares adult play behavior in the two Pan species in order to test the effects of phylogenetic closeness and the nature of social systems on play distribution. The social play (both with fertile and immature subjects) performed by adults did not differ between the two species. In contrast, in bonobos, play levels among fertile subjects were higher than in chimpanzees. Findings regarding levels of undecided conflicts (more frequent in bonobos) and formal submission displays (lacking in bonobos) confirm, in the two colonies under study, that bonobos exhibit "egalitarianism" more than chimpanzees. Some authors emphasized the importance of play-fighting for social assessment when relationships among individuals are not codified and structured according to rank-rules. Indeed, adult bonobos played more roughly than chimpanzees. Moreover, adult bonobos displayed the full play-face at a high frequency especially during rough play sessions, whereas in chimpanzees, the frequency of play signals was not affected by roughness of play. The frequency of social play among bonobo females was higher than in any other sex combinations, whereas no difference was found for chimpanzees. As a matter of fact, social play can be viewed as a balance between cooperation and competition. Among bonobo females, characterized by social competence and affiliation, social play might enhance their behavioral flexibility and increase their socially symmetrical relationships which, after all, are the basis for their egalitarian society.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1984

Social support and social network scales: a psychometric review.

Social support and social network scales were reviewed from a psychometric perspective. A sample of 29 behavioral science studies were selected from social support and social network articles published between 1967 and 1982. Each study was classified according to psychometric issues of scaling, reliability, and validity. The review was motivated by the hypothesis that many social support and social network scales are developed without complete utilization of existing measurement technology. Results of this review confirm this hypothesis. Limited availability of basic psychometric data for such scales attenuates theory development and research efficiency. Researchers in this field are encouraged to increase the availability of basic psychometric information for social support and social network scales.

Humans↗
PubMed1979

Effects of peer-mediated social initiations and prompting/reinforcement procedures on the social behavior of autistic children.

Peer-mediated social initiations and prompting/reinforcement procedures were evaluated (in training and generalization sessions) as interventions for increasing the positive social behavior of four autistic children. During baseline, the peer trainer made few social initiations and did not prompt or socially reinforce subjects. For two subjects, baseline was followed by social initiation intervention, and for the other two, baseline was followed by prompting and social reinforcement. Both interventions produced dramatic and comparable increases in positive social behavior in training sessions. Post-treatment responding was not observed for either intervention. When interventions terminated in a second baseline period, the subjects' behavior returned to the level observed during the initial baseline. The subjects were then exposed to the intervention procedure they had not yet experienced. Again, there were positive and comparable behavior changes in the treatment setting, but no increase in positive social behavior was observed during generalization assessment.

Autistic Disorder↗
PubMed1990

Social competence in schizophrenia: premorbid adjustment, social skill, and domains of functioning.

The relations between premorbid adjustment, social skill, and domains of functioning (symptoms, social adjustment) were examined in a group of 107 schizophrenic, schizoaffective, and affective disorder patients. Premorbid sexual adjustment was moderately correlated with social skill in the schizophrenic and schizoaffective patients. Schizophrenic patients had the lowest premorbid adjustment and social skill, followed by schizoaffectives, and then affective patients. Within the schizophrenic group, social skill was significantly related to both current social adjustment and negative symptoms, but not positive symptoms. Similar but weaker effects were found for premorbid adjustment. The results suggest that deficits in social skill are correlated with poor premorbid and morbid social adjustment of schizophrenics.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Social stress by repeated defeat: effects on social behaviour and emotionality.

The consequences of repeated defeat stress on social and non-social behaviours were assessed in male rats 24 h after the last defeat. Aggressive, defensive, introductory and affiliative items of both experimental animals and their opponents were recorded in a social behaviour test, while emotionality, exploration and general motor activity were scored in the Emergency, Hole-Board, and Elevated Plus-Maze tests. In addition to a dramatic loss of body weight, a selective inhibition of aggression was observed in the stressed experimental subjects, paralleled by decreased defence in their opponents. In the stressed animals, no change was found in other social and non-social behaviours; in particular, defence and emotionality were unaffected. This shows that, under our experimental conditions, the inhibition of aggression, which has often been reported to parallel an increase in defence after social and non-social aversive stimulation, was not dependent on a concomitant activation of a prevailing defensive motivational system, sustained by increased emotionality and fear. As the same result, namely a selective inhibition of aggression with no effect on defence, was obtained after exposure to a non-social stressor (restraint), the hypothesis is advanced that the threshold for stress-induced behavioural changes is lower for aggression than for any other behavioural and motivational system, including that leading to defence. The inhibition of aggression would therefore be a direct response to stress and not a by-product of the activation of a fear-based defensive system.

Aggression↗
PubMed1992

Social factors mediating social class differences in blood pressure in a Jamaican community.

Research on the factors mediating social class differences in blood pressure was carried out in a Jamaican community. It was found in a previous report that higher social class is related to lower blood pressure for females, while for males higher social class is related to higher blood pressure. These differences are examined in greater detail here, especially in terms of the historical context of the specific community studied, which is on the fringe of the Kingston urban area, and in terms of the continuing importance of a social class system established under colonial rule. In the current study it is shown that social class differences in blood pressure for males are mediated by perceptions of social support. Social class differences in blood pressure for females are mediated by perceptions of economic stress. It is suggested that specific patterns of the growth of the city, and the historically-based social class system, have resulted in the juxtaposition of lower and middle class Jamaicans within this community, who in turn are influenced by different factors affecting blood pressure.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Coronary disease in relation to social support and social class in Swedish men. A 15 year follow-up in the study of men born in 1933.

AIMS: Low socio-economic status is a well-known risk factor for coronary heart disease (CHD), but the evidence concerning social network has been less consistent. In this prospective cohort study of men we sought to estimate the impact of social network factors on the risk of incident coronary heart disease and mortality from all causes. METHODS AND RESULTS: In a population of 741 men aged 50 at baseline 92 new cases of coronary disease were identified over a follow-up period of 15 years. Social factors included occupational class, two measures of social support-- "emotional attachment" and "social integration"-- and a measure of global mental stress. Among the men in the lowest quartile of social integration, there were 13.6 cases (per 1000 observation years), compared to 8.9 in the intermediate two quartiles and 6.0 in the highest quartile (P for trend 0.003). After adjustment for all relevant risk factors the hazard ratio (HR) for the highest, compared with the lowest, quartile was 0.45 (0.24-0.84);P for trend 0.013. Emotional attachment was also associated with significantly reduced risk. The adjusted HR for the lowest quartile was 0.58 (0.37-0.91); P=0.019. No relation between mental stress and risk of CHD, or between low occupational class and risk of CHD was found. CONCLUSION: In this prospective study of men, we found two dimensions of low social support-low social integration and low emotional attachment-to be predictive of coronary morbidity, independently of other risk factors.

Aged↗
PubMed2026

Advancing nursing education through social and emotional learning: A systematic review guided by the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning framework.

BACKGROUND: With Generation Z entering the nursing workforce in growing numbers, strengthening social and emotional learning is critical for academic success, professional adaptation, and safe practice. However, the existing evidence remains fragmented because of varied interventions and inconsistent approaches. OBJECTIVES: This systematic review examined (1) the social and emotional learning essential for nursing students and nurses within the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning framework, (2) their impact on educational and clinical outcomes, and (3) implications for advancing nursing education and practice. METHODS: Following Joanna Briggs Institute methodology and Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines, five international (PubMed, EMBASE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, Cochrane) and three Korean (RISS, KoreaMed, KMBASE) databases were searched up to June 2025. Eighteen studies involving 2,952 participants met the inclusion criteria, including quasi-experimental quantitative studies, descriptive quantitative studies, qualitative studies, and mixed-methods studies. The methodological quality of the included studies was appraised using the Mixed Methods Appraisal Tool. RESULTS: Within the Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning framework, relationship skills and self-management were the most frequently studied competencies, emphasizing teamwork, communication, and stress regulation. Self-awareness and social awareness were underexplored, despite their importance in empathy, resilience, and reflective practice. Responsible decision-making was the least studied competency, despite its importance in ethical reasoning. Social and emotional learning was consistently associated with enhanced adaptation, communication, leadership, relationships, and clinical performance. Effective strategies included blended learning, simulation, reflective activities, and mentorship, which are aligned with Generation Z's learning preferences. CONCLUSION: Although social and emotional learning integration is associated with improvements in educational and clinical outcomes in nursing, current research has largely centered on relational and stress-related competencies while underrepresenting responsible decision-making. To cultivate reflective, empathetic, and ethically grounded nurses, curricula should integrate social and emotional learning through a balanced and structured approach. REGISTRATION: This study was registered on PROSPERO (ID: CRD420251005683).

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Role of socialization in explaining social inequalities in health.

This paper argues that social selection, materialist/structural and cultural/behavioural explanations for social inequalities in health are related to each other through the mechanism of socialization, seen here as a process through which societies shape patterns of behaviour and being that then affect health. Socialization involves the inter- and intragenerational transfer of attitudes, beliefs and behaviours. Parallels between socialization theory and Bourdieu's concept of habitus are also drawn, and the implications for social epidemiology are discussed. Four key areas that would benefit from research within the socialization framework are identified: health behaviours, psychological vulnerability, social skills and future time perspective.

Health Status↗