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PubMed2000

Social networks and the elderly: conceptual and clinical issues, and a family consultation.

After a general introduction to the construct "social networks," this article discusses the progressive transformation of the personal social network--family, friends and acquaintances, work and leisure relationships, et cetera--as individuals reach an advanced age. This is followed by a summary and discussion of a clinical consultation, with an emphasis on the reciprocal influence between individual and social network.

Aged↗

PubMed2002

Living situation, subjective quality of life and social network among individuals with schizophrenia living in community settings.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the relationships between characteristics of the living situation in the community and subjective quality of life and social network among community-based individuals with schizophrenia. METHOD: A total of 418 individuals with schizophrenia from 10 sites were interviewed with regard to quality of life, psychopathology, social network and needs for care. Characteristics of the living situation investigated were: living alone or not, living with family or not, and having an independent or a sheltered housing situation. RESULTS: An independent housing situation was related to a better quality of life concerning living situation and living with the family to a better quality of life concerning family relations. An independent housing situation was associated with a better social network regarding availability and adequacy of emotional relations. CONCLUSION: People with schizophrenia with an independent housing situation have a better quality of life associated with more favorable perceptions of independence, influence, and privacy. Their social network is better irrespective of whether they live alone or not, or with family or not.

Activities of Daily Living↗

PubMed1998

[Living arrangements and social networks of elders. A selection of findings from a NESTOR-Study].

This article presents an overview of the design and results of the NESTOR survey 'Living Arrangements and Social Networks of Older Adults', an empirical study, started in 1992, among a representative sample of 4495 people, aged 55-89, selected from the population registers of 11 municipalities in the Netherlands. Questions were asked about living arrangements, the composition and functions of social networks, and important transitions in the marital, parental and occupational careers. The results indicated a wide diversity in living arrangements and social networks, a diversity which is particularly visible among the young old. They not only have larger networks, but are also more likely to live alone, to be divorced and to participate in shared housing arrangements. The networks vary considerably in size, from 0 to more than 40 important relationships. The decrease in network size with age appears to be directly related to specific life events such as widowhood, physical handicaps, residential moves etc. About 2/3 of the relationships are family relationships: parents, children (in law), grandchildren (in law), brothers and sisters (in law), uncles and aunts. Older people tend to be in touch at least once a month with the majority of close family members. The intensity of supportive exchanges (giving and receiving instrumental and emotional support in the twelve relationships with the highest levels of contact) is moderate, however mostly in balance. Only the very old receive somewhat more instrumental support and give considerably less than the 'young-old'. We studied the shift in balance between giving and receiving over a period of 12 months among a small proportion of the sample, checking a central hypothesis of exchange theory. In some cases a new balance evolves. In others the relationship continues to exist for a number of reasons, despite the imbalance. Early life experiences appear to be important for later life outcomes. Those who experienced the divorce of their parents before the age of 15 or those whose parents lived apart permanently (e.g. unmarried mothers) have a smaller social network and feel more lonely. Marital history has an impact on patterns of informal and formal care. E.g., those respondents without a partner who have children are less likely to use formal care than those who are childless. Among divorced elderly the use of formal care not only varies between men and women but also differs according to the marriage in which the children are born, first or second marriage. Occupational history is strongly related to the income level of older women living alone.

Aged↗

PubMed1983

Social networks and coronary heart disease among Japanese men in Hawaii.

A group of 4653 men of Japanese ancestry living in Hawaii were studied for the association of measures of social networks with both the prevalence and incidence rates of coronary heart disease (Honolulu Heart Program, 1971-1979). Prevalence rates for myocardial infarction, angina, and total coronary heart disease were inversely associated with the social network scales in bivariate analyses with age, and in multivariate analyses including 12 other risk factors. With the incidence data, the associations were less evident. Bivariate analysis with age revealed inverse associations for nonfatal myocardial infarction and total coronary heart disease with only one of the social network scales. With multivariate analyses, there was no significant association of any subgroup of coronary heart disease with any scale, although there was a borderline association (p = 0.08) of nonfatal myocardial infarction with one scale. No individual question was significantly associated with either prevalence or incidence rates for coronary heart disease. There was also little evidence of reduced risk of incident coronary heart disease associated with the social network scale for men in high risk categories of serum cholesterol, blood pressure, and cigarette smoking.

Aged↗

PubMed2003

Large-scale structural organization of social networks.

The characterization of large-scale structural organization of social networks is an important interdisciplinary problem. We show, by using scaling analysis and numerical computation, that the following factors are relevant for models of social networks: the correlation between friendship ties among people and the position of their social groups, as well as the correlation between the positions of different social groups to which a person belongs.

Journal Article↗

PubMed1996

[Relation among lifestyle, social network, blood pressure and serum lipids in the elderly].

The relationships among seven lifestyle factors including stress, which is focused on as a risk factor for cardiovascular disease recently, social network, blood pressure and serum lipids in the elderly were examined in a cross sectional study of 85 males and 65 females aged 60 years or over in the city of Sayama, Saitama Prefecture. The seven lifestyle factors were as follows: (1) amount of alcohol consumption, (2) cigarette smoking, (3) Physical exercise, (4) sleeping time per night, (5) nutritional balance, (6) body weight, and (7) stress. As social network factors, marital status and coping factor for stress and/or anxiety were introduced. Stressful life events strongly associated with stress status were also discussed. In this study, it was clear that age, alcohol consumption, stress status and stressful life events caused higher blood pressure. On the other hand, the social network was associated with lifestyle status and a controlled blood pressure level. Obesity and physical exercise were significantly associated with serum lipids. There results suggest that it is very important for the maintenance and promotion of health and risk reduction of disease among the elderly to control socio-psychological factors such as stress and stressful life event, and that a social network helps maintain a healthy lifestyle.

Aged↗

PubMed1989

Characteristics of social networks in adolescents with end-stage renal disease treated with renal transplantation.

In adolescents, the establishment of same- and opposite-sex nonfamily peer relations facilitates the normal development of independence and separation from family. Adolescents with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) may be particularly vulnerable to delayed social development and isolation from their peers because of the unique physical and psychosocial aspects of their illness. The characteristics of the social networks of 16 adolescents with ESRD treated with renal transplantation were studied using the Social Networks of Youth Questionnaire. Compared with a matched group of healthy adolescents, these teenagers named fewer significant others in their total social networks, as well as fewer unrelated and opposite-sex peers. Family members comprised a greater proportion of the transplant patients' networks compared to controls. Self-esteem, measured by the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Scale, was similar for transplant and control groups, with the exception of home self-esteem, which was higher in the chronically ill adolescents. Body image was somewhat lower, but not significantly, in adolescents with ESRD. The characteristics of the chronically ill adolescents' social networks suggest that these patients may experience a degree of social isolation. Interventions that promote increased peer contacts and enhance interpersonal skills should be included in the psychosocial management of adolescents with ESRD after renal transplantation.

Acute Disease↗

PubMed2005

Geographic routing in social networks.

We live in a "small world," where two arbitrary people are likely connected by a short chain of intermediate friends. With scant information about a target individual, people can successively forward a message along such a chain. Experimental studies have verified this property in real social networks, and theoretical models have been advanced to explain it. However, existing theoretical models have not been shown to capture behavior in real-world social networks. Here, we introduce a richer model relating geography and social-network friendship, in which the probability of befriending a particular person is inversely proportional to the number of closer people. In a large social network, we show that one-third of the friendships are independent of geography and the remainder exhibit the proposed relationship. Further, we prove analytically that short chains can be discovered in every network exhibiting the relationship.

Algorithms↗

PubMed1979

Social networks and schizophrenia.

This artical begins with an introduction to social networks research and its practical importance in the understanding and treatment of schizophrenia, and concludes with a consideration of the experience, the phenomenology, of schizophrenia, from a social network point of view.

Family↗

PubMed2005

Social network in long-term diseases: a comparative study in relatives of persons with schizophrenia and physical illnesses versus a sample from the general population.

This study compares the social network of a sample of 709 relatives of patients with schizophrenia, 646 relatives of patients with physical diseases, and 714 lay respondents, recruited in 30 randomly selected Italian areas, stratified for geographic location and population density. Each respondent was asked to fill in the Social Network Questionnaire. The social network was less extended and supportive in relatives of patients with schizophrenia than in those of patients with physical diseases and in the general population. Multivariate analyses revealed that social contacts were similarly reduced in relatives of patients with schizophrenia and physical diseases, while social support was significantly lower in relatives of patients with schizophrenia than in the other two groups. Social resources were higher in young respondents and in those living in rural areas. These results highlight the need to provide the families of those with long-term diseases with interventions aimed at increasing their social resources.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Social networks and quality of life for long-term survivors of leukemia and lymphoma.

GOALS: This study examined the relationship between personal and medical characteristics and quality of life (QOL) for long-term survivors (LTS) of leukemia and lymphoma, and how social networks influence this relationship. PATIENTS AND METHODS: Fifty three LTS, at least 10 years postdiagnosis, were administered a standardized psychometric instrument, the Quality of Life--Cancer Survivors, to assess multidimensional aspects of QOL. Social network characteristics were measured by items assessing social support satisfaction, use of supportive care services, network size, and reliance on formal and informal social ties. MAIN RESULTS: A hierarchical regression model explained 52.4% of the variance in QOL for the final model, including all important predictors. Social support satisfaction (beta=0.393, p=0.001) and the use of supportive care services (beta=-0.262, p=0.047) significantly predicted QOL after controlling for confounding variables. Social network structures (including network size and reliance on formal and informal social ties) were indirectly associated with QOL through the use of supportive care services. CONCLUSIONS: The results indicate that the use of supportive care services, satisfaction with social support, network size, and reliance on formal and informal social ties affect QOL for long-term cancer survivors. Enhancing cancer survivors' social networks may ultimately improve their QOL.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Effect of social networks on 10 year survival in very old Australians: the Australian longitudinal study of aging.

STUDY OBJECTIVES: To examine if social networks with children, relatives, friends, and confidants predict survival in older Australians over 10 years after controlling for a range of demographic, health, and lifestyle variables. DESIGN: Prospective longitudinal cohort study (the Australian longitudinal study of aging) SETTING: Adelaide, South Australia. PARTICIPANTS: 1477 persons aged 70 years or more living in the community and residential care facilities. MAIN RESULTS: After controlling for a range of demographic, health, and lifestyle variables, greater networks with friends were protective against mortality in the 10 year follow up period. The hazard ratio for participants in the highest tertile of friends networks compared with participants in the lowest group was 0.78 (95%CI 0.65 to 0.92). A smaller effect of greater networks with confidants (hazard ratio = 0.84; 95%CI = 0.71 to 0.98) was seen. The effects of social networks with children and relatives were not significant with respect to survival over the following decade. CONCLUSIONS: Survival time may be enhanced by strong social networks. Among older Australians, these may be important in lengthening survival.

Aged↗

PubMed1998

Social network ties, self-efficacy, and condom use among women who use crack cocaine: a pilot study.

So far, attempts to change the sexual risk behavior of women who use crack cocaine have been less successful than efforts to change the needle risk behavior of injection drug users. Two theoretical areas that have shown some success in predicting behavior change among of out-of-treatment drug users are Bandura's social cognitive theory (self-efficacy theory) and social network theory. According to Bandura, social networks are important sources of social support, and social support is vital to self-efficacy. Social network research also indicates that close bonds with network members may be a protective factor independently of self-efficacy. In order to test the feasibility of collecting such data, a pilot study was conducted with 60 women who used crack cocaine and who were not in treatment. Results of Pearson product-moment correlations indicated that self-efficacy (.7230) and number of very strong ties (.31252994) were positively correlated with condom use for women in the sample. In addition, the number of very strong ties (.3142) was significantly, if modestly, correlated with self-efficacy. Self-efficacy was

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗

PubMed2002

Random graph models of social networks.

We describe some new exactly solvable models of the structure of social networks, based on random graphs with arbitrary degree distributions. We give models both for simple unipartite networks, such as acquaintance networks, and bipartite networks, such as affiliation networks. We compare the predictions of our models to data for a number of real-world social networks and find that in some cases, the models are in remarkable agreement with the data, whereas in others the agreement is poorer, perhaps indicating the presence of additional social structure in the network that is not captured by the random graph.

Humans↗

PubMed1999

Hierarchies and cliques in the social networks of health care professionals: implications for the design of dissemination strategies.

Interest in how best to influence the behaviour of clinicians in the interests of both clinical and cost effectiveness has rekindled concern with the social networks of health care professionals. Ever since the seminal work of Coleman et al. [Coleman, J.S., Katz, E., Menzel, H., 1966. Medical Innovation: A Diffusion Study. Bobbs-Merrill, Indianapolis.], networks have been seen as important in the process by which clinicians adopt (or fail to adopt) new innovations in clinical practice. Yet very little is actually known about the social networks of clinicians in modern health care settings. This paper describes the professional social networks of two groups of health care professionals, clinical directors of medicine and directors of nursing, in hospitals in England. We focus on network density, centrality and centralisation because these characteristics have been linked to access to information, social influence and social control processes. The results show that directors of nursing are more central to their networks than clinical directors of medicine and that their networks are more hierarchical. Clinical directors of medicine tend to be embedded in much more densely connected networks which we describe as cliques. The hypotheses that the networks of directors of nursing are better adapted to gathering and disseminating information than clinical directors of medicine, but that the latter could be more potent instruments for changing, or resisting changes, in clinical behaviour, follow from a number of sociological theories. We conclude that professional socialisation and structural location are important determinants of social networks and that these factors could usefully be considered in the design of strategies to inform and influence clinicians.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

[Mobile-phone e-mail use, social networks, and loneliness among Japanese high school students].

PURPOSE: The purposes of this study were to assess the loneliness of Japanese high school students who own and use a mobile phone, to clarify the relationships between students' loneliness and their social network and frequency of use of e-mail feature, and to demonstrate relationships with a student's social network and recognition of the benefits and drawbacks of mobile phone use. METHOD: The participants were 227 students from two classes in each grade of a high school in the Kanto region of Japan. Participants answered a questionnaire covering the UCLA Loneliness Scale as well as questions pertaining to the circumstances of use of their mobile phones, their social networks (e.g., number of friends), and their perceptions of the benefits and drawbacks of mobile phone use. The questionnaires of students owning a mobile phone were analyzed. Total scores for the UCLA Loneliness Scale were calculated, and factor analysis was performed for the benefits and drawbacks. RESULT: A total of 220 questionnaires were returned, for which 94.1 percent of respondents owned a mobile phone. The percentages of male and female respondents were 58% and 42%. Chronbach's alpha for the UCLA Loneliness Scale (total score) was 0.87, a result similar to previous studies with high school and university students. Factor analysis revealed five factors associated with the benefits and drawbacks of mobile phone use. Multiple-regression analysis showed that 42.9% of the variance in "frequency of e-mail use" was explained by grade level, frequency of mobile phone use, and two of the five factors from the benefits and drawbacks ("difficulty of communication," and "possible sleep loss due to nighttime e-mailing"). Stepwise multiple-regression analysis revealed that 24.4% of the variance in UCLA Loneliness Score was explained by gender, the frequency of e-mail use, the number of friends and the presence/absence of a girlfriend or boyfriend. CONCLUSION: Presence of an active social network and frequent e-mailing by mobile phone reduced students' loneliness. The frequency depended on their recognition of the benefits and drawbacks of mobile phone use and by the frequency of mobile phone use. This study established that students appreciate the usefulness of their mobile phone as an immediate communication tool, and are aware of its limitations. Although they experience frustration and lack of sleep (because of nighttime use), students use mobile phones to deepen their friendships.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2002

Social network effects on the transmission of sexually transmitted diseases.

BACKGROUND: Only a limited number of studies have examined the effects of social networks on sexually transmitted diseases (STDs), although the findings of such studies would be helpful in designing more effective prevention strategies. GOAL: This study attempts (1) to determine whether there are any social network effects on STD transmission after controlling for other risk factors and (2) to explore the possible mechanisms by which social networks exert their effects. STUDY DESIGN: Logistic regressions examine the effects of friendship networks on STD transmission using data drawn from the Chicago Health and Social Life Survey (CHSLS). Additional logistic regressions probe the possible mechanisms (social control versus information and dyadic versus third party) that account for how the observed effects of networks might arise. RESULTS AND CONCLUSION: Among people who had fewer than 13 lifetime sex partners, those with no social friends were only 0.4 times as likely to be infected as those with one or more social friends. Among people who had 13 or more lifetime partners, those with many friends (5 or 6) but weak ties to them (talking less than once a day with them) were only 0.2 times as likely to be infected as those with either fewer friends or stronger ties to their friends. Additional regressions suggest that network effects resting on dyadic control prevail among those with fewer than 13 lifetime sex partners. In contrast, network effects resting on information exchange among third parties prevail among those with 13 or more lifetime partners.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Topological relationships between brain and social networks.

Brains are complex networks. Previously, we revealed that specific connected structures are either significantly abundant or rare in cortical networks. However, it remains unknown whether systems from other disciplines have similar architectures to brains. By applying network-theoretical methods, here we show topological similarities between brain and social networks. We found that the statistical relevance of specific tied structures differs between social "friendship" and "disliking" networks, suggesting relation-type-specific topology of social networks. Surprisingly, overrepresented connected structures in brain networks are more similar to those in the friendship networks than to those in other networks. We found that balanced and imbalanced reciprocal connections between nodes are significantly abundant and rare, respectively, whereas these results are unpredictable by simply counting mutual connections. We interpret these results as evidence of positive selection of balanced mutuality between nodes. These results also imply the existence of underlying common principles behind the organization of brain and social networks.

Animals↗