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PubMed2006

Influence of selenium treatment on the acute toxicity of dibutyltin dichloride in rats.

BACKGROUND/AIMS: Dibutyltin dichloride (DBTC) is an organotin compound used as a model for acute pancreatitis. The aim was to determine the effect of various doses of Na-selenite on the pathogenesis and course of DBTC-induced toxic changes in organs and serum of rats. METHODS: Experimental pancreatitis was induced by intravenous administration of 6 mg kg(-1) BW DBTC. Na-selenite was applied as a single intravenous dose of 5 mg kg(-1) BW and as daily oral dose of 1 mg kg(-1) BW. Malondialdehyde (MDA) was detected to observe the level of oxidative stress. The tin concentration in bile and urine shows the elimination of DBTC. Organ changes were indicated by serum parameters as well as histology. RESULTS: DBTC causes an acute pancreatitis, cholestasis and liver lesions determined by specific elevated serum parameters and several histological lesions. Na-selenite significantly diminished MDA concentration, lipase, bilirubin and transaminases as well as organ injuries compared to only DBTC-treated rats. CONCLUSIONS: The treatment with Na-selenite in the scope of DBTC-induced pancreatitis points to a reduced oxidative stress characterized by diminished MDA serum levels and a milder course of pancreatitis. The generation of DBTC-Na-selenite complexes could also be a mechanism to decrease the toxicity of organotin compounds like DBTC.

Alkaline Phosphatase↗
PubMed1997

Organotin-induced apoptosis as observed in vitro is not relevant for induction of thymus atrophy at antiproliferative doses.

The organotin compounds di-n-butyltin dichloride (DBTC) and tri-n-butyltin chloride (TBTC) selectively cause thymus atrophy. Previously, DBTC and TBTC were shown to inhibit proliferation of immature thymocytes, but other studies demonstrated that TBTC but not DBTC increased apoptosis in vitro and also in vivo. In this study, we examined whether apoptosis is increased in vitro by DBTC and TBTC at various concentrations and periods of incubation and whether apoptosis is involved in the induction of thymus atrophy at selective antiproliferative doses. In vitro, DBTC or TBTC at a concentration of 3 microM significantly increased DNA fragmentation in freshly isolated rat thymocytes after preincubation for 10 min followed by a 22-hr culture period. After continuous exposure for 22 hr, apoptosis was observed to be optimum at 1 microM TBTC and 0.3 microM DBTC and lower or absent at higher concentrations. Apparently, apoptosis induced by organotins in vitro depends on both duration and concentration of exposure. Selective antiproliferative doses of DBTC nor TBTC increased apoptosis on day 1 or 2 after single oral exposure. In contrast, the corticosteroid dexamethasone caused a depletion of both small and large thymocytes and a marked increase of apoptosis on both days 1 and 2 after dosing. Thus, although apoptosis is involved in the in vitro cytotoxic effects of both organotin compounds, it seems not involved in thymus atrophy at a dose that selectively inhibits immature thymocyte proliferation.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Ovo-testis and disturbed reproductive cycle in the giant abalone, Haliotis madaka: possible linkage with organotin contamination in a site of population decline.

Histological examination of gonads as well as chemical analysis of organotin compounds in tissues of the giant abalone, Haliotis madaka, was conducted to evaluate possible endocrine disruption and to consider the causal factors for the decline of abalone stocks in Japan. Abalone specimens were collected from two different areas, Tsushima as a reference site and Jogashima as a site representative of declining abalone populations, each month from September 1995 to November 1996. Scores were given to the development stages of reproductive cells in the ovary and testis. The degree of sexual maturation was evaluated by calculating the mean value of a histogram of these scores for the reproductive cells of each abalone. The temporal variations in degree of sexual maturation showed that female and male abalone from Tsushima matured synchronously, while those from Jogashima did not. The observed maximum reproductive developmental score in abalone from Jogashima was much lower than that from Tsushima, because immature females were present at the former site throughout the spawing season. Approximately 20% of the abalone from Jogashima were masculinized females with an ovo-testis. The masculinization of female abalone was similar to the imposex, typically induced in other gastropod molluscs by tributyltin (TBT) and triphenyltin (TPhT) from antifouling paints. Concentrations of TBT and TPhT in the muscles of abalone from Jogashima (n = 83) of 4.9 +/- 4.4 ng/g wet wt and 6.3 +/- 6.6 ng/g wet wt, respectively, were significantly higher than those from Tsushima (n = 125) (P < 0.01) of 0.8 +/- 0.8 ng/g wet wt and 0.6 +/- 1.3 ng/g wet wt, respectively. In situ exposure of abalone from Tsushima caged near a dockyard in Jogashima for 7 months (from the immature to the mature stage) resulted in spermatogenesis in the ovary of approximately 90% of females. Endocrine disruption may be caused in the giant abalone by organotin compounds from antifouling paints, which are possibly one of the causal factors for the decline of Japanese abalone stocks.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Speciation of organotin and organolead compounds in drinking water by gas chromatography--atomic emission spectrometry.

Raw and treated water samples and distribution system water samples were collected in forty-five Canadian municipalities for the analysis of organotin and organolead compounds. After extraction from the water samples organotin and organolead compounds were alkylated with pentylmagnesium bromide and butylmagnesium chloride respectively and analysed by gas chromatography-microwave induced plasma atomic emission spectrometry (GC-AED) using wavelengths specific for tin (326.23 nm) and lead 405.78 nm). The GC-AED system was optimised for trace level analysis, especially for organolead compounds. Organotin compounds, mainly methyltin and butyltin at concentrations up to 22 ng Sn/L and 43.6 ng Sn/L respectively, were detected in distributed water samples from six municipalities. No organotin compounds were detected in raw water samples indicating that the organotin compounds were leaching into the water from some component of the distribution system. One raw water sample contained six organolead compounds at concentrations from 0.5 to 10 ng Pb/L and five raw water and three distributed water samples contained trace levels ( < 0.5 ng Pb/L) of organolead compounds. Due to the lack of authentic standards the identity of the organolead compounds could not be confirmed by gas-chromatography mass-spectrometry.

Canada↗
PubMed2005

Structure, dynamics, and membrane topology of stannin: a mediator of neuronal cell apoptosis induced by trimethyltin chloride.

Organotin compounds or alkyltins are ubiquitous environmental toxins that have been implicated in cellular death. Unlike other xenobiotic compounds, such as organomercurials and organoleads, alkyltins activate apoptotic cascades at low concentrations. Trimethyltin (TMT) chloride is amongst the most toxic organotin compounds, and is known to selectively inflict injury to specific regions of the brain. Stannin (SNN), an 88-residue mitochondrial membrane protein, has been identified as the specific marker for neuronal cell apoptosis induced by TMT intoxication. This high specificity of TMT makes SNN an ideal model system for understanding the mechanism of organotin neurotoxicity at a molecular level. Here, we report the three-dimensional structure and dynamics of SNN in detergent micelles, and its topological orientation in lipid bilayers as determined by solution and solid-state NMR spectroscopy. We found that SNN is a monotopic membrane protein composed of three domains: a single transmembrane helix (residues 10-33) that transverses the lipid bilayer at approximately a 20 degrees angle with respect to the membrane normal; a 28 residue unstructured linker, which includes a conserved CXC metal-binding motif and a putative 14-3-3zeta binding domain; and a distorted cytoplasmic helix (residues 61-79) that is partially absorbed into the plane of the lipid bilayer with a tilt angle of approximately 80 degrees from the membrane normal. The structure and architecture of SNN within the lipid environment provides insight about how this protein transmits toxic insults caused by TMT across the membrane.

Amides↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Antitumor organometallics. I. Activity of some diphenyltin(IV) and diphenylantimony(III) derivatives on in vitro and in vivo Ehrlich ascites tumor.

Diphenyltin(IV) and diphenylantimony(III) derivatives of dithiophosphorus ligands, i.e. Ph2Sn(S2PPh2)2 (1), Ph2Sn[S2P(OPr)2]2 (2), Ph2SbS2PPh2 (3) and Ph2SbS2P(OPri)2 (4), have been tested in vitro and in vivo against Ehrlich ascites tumor. All four compounds were almost equally effective in vitro, exhibiting inhibitory effects on cell proliferation, viability and protein synthesis, and exacerbated respiration and Ca-ATPase activity. In mice bearing Ehrlich ascites tumor cells, all four compounds inhibited the tumor growth, the organometallic phosphorodithioates being more active than phosphinodithioate analogues, and the organoantimony derivatives more active than organotins. Compound 4 (5 mg/kg/day, i.p., on days 1,3 and 5) produced an increase in life span of 83% and a cure rate of 30% in mice bearing this tumor.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Inhibition of rat testis microsomal 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity by tributyltin.

In this study, we have examined the effects of a range of organotin compounds (mono-, di-, tributyltin, mono-, di-, trioctyltin) on the activities of rat testis microsomal 3beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3beta-HSD), 17-hydroxylase (17-OHase) and 17beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17beta-HSD). 17-OHase activity was inhibited by more than 50% compared with the control rate by 59 microM tributyltin (TBT) but other organotin compounds showed no inhibition. 17beta-HSD activity was unaffected by all organotins tested. 3beta-HSD was inhibited by monooctyltin (81 microM) and by TBT at all concentrations tested in a dose-dependent manner, with almost complete loss of activity at TBT concentrations of 12 microM. The mechanism of inhibition of 3beta-HSD was investigated in kinetic analysis with 0-12 microM TBT. Three rat testis microsomal preparations were incubated with dehydroepiandrosterone as the steroid substrate ranging from 1 to 10,000 nM. Tributyltin was primarily a competitive inhibitor of 3beta-HSD activity, causing an increase in the value of the K(m(app)). However, the mechanism was not entirely competitive as while there was an increase in K(m(app)), a decrease in the V(max(app)) was also observed with increasing concentrations of TBT. Slope and intercept replots demonstrated that the K(i)((app)) from slope replots was around 2.7 microM whereas the K(i)((app)) value from intercept replots was around 30 microM. When compared with the K(m(app)) for 3beta-HSD of around 0.42 microM, TBT could be an effective inhibitor of this enzyme.

17-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenases↗
PubMed2002

Application of a heated electrospray interface for on-line connection of the AAS detector with HPLC for detection of organotin and organolead compounds.

A heated electrospray interface that affords high sensitivity and long-term signal stability for AAS detection of metal-containing analytes in organic or organic-water solvents after HPLC separation is described. The vitreous body of the electrospray interface is externally heated above the boiling point of the solvent and quartz furnace AAS is used for detection. Interface working conditions were optimized with a full experimental design for the detection of tin- (tetramethyl-, tetraethyl-, tetrabutyl-, and tetrapentyltin, tributyltin chloride, dibutyltin dichloride, and butyltin trichloride) and lead- (tetraethyl- and tetraphenyllead) containing compounds in the column eluate. The heated electrospray interface enables use of a wide range of flow rates - from 50 to 1000 micro L min(-1). The measurement sensitivity and detection limit achieved were compared with those obtained by use of the thermospray interface and post-column conversion of the organotin compounds to gaseous hydrides. The detection limits for the low-molecular weight species of the homologous series (2.8+/-0.1 ng (140+/-5 ng mL(-1)) for tetramethyltin and 3.1+/-0.2 ng (155+/-10 ng mL(-1)) for tetraethyltin) were obtained approximately one order of magnitude lower than those obtained by use of the thermospray interface. With this HPLC-ES-QFAAS system the tributyltin content of BCR reference material 477, mussel tissue, was analyzed. This system was also applied to analysis of tetraethyllead in gasoline samples.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Studies with novel Pdr5p substrates demonstrate a strong size dependence for xenobiotic efflux.

The yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) multidrug transporter Pdr5p effluxes a broad range of substrates that are variable in structure and mode of action. Previous work suggested that molecular size and ionization could be important parameters. In this study, we compared the relative sensitivity of isogenic PDR5 and pdr5 strains toward putative substrates that are similar in chemical structure. Three series were used: imidazole-containing compounds, trialkyltin chlorides, and tetraalkyltin compounds. We demonstrate that the Pdr5p transporter is capable of mediating transport of substrates that neither ionize nor have electron pair donors and that are much simpler in structure than those transported by the human MDR1-encoded P-glycoprotein. Furthermore, the size of the substrate is critical and independent of any requirement for hydrophobicity. Substrates have surface volumes greater than 90 A(3) with an optimum response at approximately 200-225 A(3) as determined by molecular modeling. Assays measuring the efflux from cells of [(3)H]chloramphenicol and [(3)H]tritylimidazole were used. A concentration-dependent inhibition of chloramphenicol transport was observed with imidazole derivatives but not with either the organotin compounds or the antitumor agent doxorubicin. In contrast, several of the organotin compounds were potent inhibitors of tritylimidazole efflux, but the Pdr5p substrate tetrapropyltin was ineffective in both assays. This argues for the existence of at least three substrate-binding sites on Pdr5p that differ in behavior from those of the mammalian P-glycoprotein. Evidence also indicates that some substrates are capable of interacting at more than one site. The surprising observation that Pdr5p mediates resistance to tetraalkyltins suggests that one of the sites might use only hydrophobic interactions to bind substrates.

ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters↗
PubMed1995

Tributyltin affects phagocytic activity of Ciona intestinalis hemocytes.

Organotin compounds have been used in marine anti-fouling paints as biocides. Because tunicates are vulnerable to these compounds in their natural habitats, we used Ciona intestinalis to establish an assay for phagocytosis in vitro of yeast by hemocytes after exposure to different concentrations (0.0015, 0.015, 0.15 and 1.5 microM) of four organotin compounds: tributyltin (TBT), triphenyltin (TPT), dibutyltin (DBT) and diphenyltin (DPT). To evaluate the phagocytic activity, we used a method based on fluorescence excitation of yeast pre-treated with eosin-Y. The percentage of phagocytosis decreased from 45.1 +/- 3.49 to 22.4 +/- 5.14 at 1.5 microM of TBT (P < 0.001); it was significantly reduced in presence of the ionophore A23187. TPT, DPT and DBT did not show significant effects on phagocytosis. Because the effect of TBT was irreversible, differences between the inhibitory mechanisms of ionophore and TBT are suggested. These results indicate that for future analyses, tunicates should become excellent models for dissecting events such as phagocytosis that are associated with immunosuppression after exposure to xenobiotics.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Differential effects of triorganotins on calmodulin activity.

In vitro effects of three triorganotins--tributyltin (TBT), triethyltin (TET), and trimethyltin (TMT)--on calmodulin (CaM) activity were studied. Stimulation of Ca2(+)-ATPase of rat brain synaptic membranes and phosphodiesterase (PDE) of bovine brain were assayed as indicators of CaM activity. The rat synaptic membranes were prepared and CaM was depleted by washing with 1 mM EGTA. All the three organotins inhibited the basal as well as CaM-stimulated Ca2(+)-ATPase in a concentration-dependent manner, suggesting their interaction with calcium pump. However, CaM-stimulated Ca2(+)-ATPase was more sensitive than the basal enzyme. The order of potency of the three organotin compounds was TBT greater than TET greater than TMT. The IC50 values of Ca2(+)-ATPase (basal) were 0.63, 35, and approximately 800 microM, respectively, whereas the values for CaM-stimulated Ca2(+)-ATPase were 0.05, 0.8, and 18 microM for TBT, TET, and TMT, respectively. CaM-deficient PDE did not show any sensitivity to these three organotin compounds, while TBT and TET significantly decreased the CaM-stimulated PDE activity. TMT, which was the least effective inhibitor of Ca2+ pump, did not alter PDE activity. Further, the inhibition of CaM-stimulated Ca2(+)-ATPase activity by these organotins could be reversed by excess addition of CaM. These results suggest that the organotins interact with CaM activity, as evidenced by their potent effect on CaM-dependent Ca2(+)-ATPase and PDE activities.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Chemical and biological evaluation of sediments from the Wadden Sea, The Netherlands.

We describe the results of an evaluation of marine sediments using chemical measurements and bioassays. Four groups of chemicals, i.e., heavy metals, PAHs, chlorinated aromatic compounds, and tin compounds, were measured at 16 locations in the Wadden Sea, The Netherlands. Extractions of sediments from each location also were assessed using five bioassays. Our objective was to identify chemicals likely to pose biological risks, characterize the relation between bioassay results and particular classes of chemical(s) and determine "clean" reference sites on the basis of the chemical and biological evaluations. A multivariate technique (Principal Component Analysis; PCA) was used to meet these objectives. Results of the PCA indicated that the response of the Microtox Solid Phase bioassay had a positive, significant relationship with the levels of PAHs and organotin compounds. The responses of the other bioassays did not consistently relate to the concentrations of the other measured chemicals. Our findings indicate that the organotin compounds may still be a stressor for aquatic invertebrates in the Dutch Wadden Sea. On the basis of the chemical and biological evaluations, four sites (Dantziggat, Malzwin, Richel and Lauwers) can be considered to be "clean" reference sites.

Biological Assay↗
PubMed2005

Pilot survey of a broad range of priority pollutants in sediment and fish from the Ebro river basin (NE Spain).

Priority organic pollutants were investigated in sediments and fish collected along the Ebro river basin (NE Spain) to evaluate their occurrence, transport and bioavailability. Sediments were collected in 18 sites and two species of fish were captured in nine sites according to the availability in each area. The sampling sites covered industrial, urban and agricultural areas. Four methods were used to detect 20 organochlorine compounds (OCs), 8 polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, 3 organotin compounds, 2 alkylphenols and 40 polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) from purified extracts. The contamination pattern was site specific and no downstream increase in concentration of pollutants was observed but rather a generalized low level diffuse pollution. Target compounds were detected in sediments at 0.01 to 2331 microg/kg dry weight, and only OCs and PBDEs were accumulated in benthopelagic fish. Toxicological assessment was performed according to predicted environmental levels and revealed sites where adverse effects could occur.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Studies on the mechanism of oxidative phosphorylation. Different effects of F0 inhibitors on unisite and multisite ATP hydrolysis by bovine submitochondrial particles.

Bovine submitochondrial particles prepared in the presence of GTP (G-SMP), as well as G-SMP washed in 150 mM KCl, catalyzed unisite ATP hydrolysis with a first order rate constant of 0.12 s-1. This rate constant remained unchanged at ATP concentrations < 0.06 microM but increased sharply at higher ATP concentrations, presumably because of ATP binding to other catalytic or regulatory sites. Pretreatment of the particles with oligomycin greatly inhibited unisite ATP binding, in agreement with previous findings. Pretreatment of the particles with N,N'-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide had a slight effect on unisite ATP binding, whereas pretreatment with the inhibitors venturicidin and tributyl(or triphenyl)tin chloride had no effect. Titration of unisite ATPase activity with increasing concentrations of oligomycin or efrapeptin resulted in sigmoidal inhibition curves, as though more than a single inhibition site was being titrated by each inhibitor. Venturicidin and organotin compounds had little effect on the ATPase activity of SMP at [ATP] < or = [F1] and did not cause 100% inhibition at [ATP] >> [F1]. By analogy to our previous studies on the inhibition of the ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase complex by antimycin (Hatefi, Y., and Yagi, T. (1982) Biochemistry 24, 6614-6618), it is proposed that venturicidin and organotin compounds freeze the structure of the F0 sector of the ATP synthase complex in such a manner that prevents the subunit molecular motions required for rapid proton flux but allows a slow proton flux generated by ATPase activity at low ATP concentrations.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed1991

Selectivity of membrane electrodes based on derivatives of dibenzyltin dichloride.

Selectivity properties are established for membrane electrodes prepared by incorporating bis(p-methylbenzyl)tin dichloride, dibenzyltin dichloride, and bis(p-chlorobenzyl)tin dichloride in plasticized polymer membranes. These electrodes display an unusually high level of selectivity for dibasic phosphate over many common anions. Electrodes prepared with the p-chloro derivative possess the best detection limit and the highest degree of selectivity for phosphate. Selectivity coefficients are calculated for phosphate relative to the following groups of anions: salicylate, benzoate, thiocyanate, iodide, nitrate, bromide, chloride, acetate, fluoride, pyrophosphate, arsenate, adenosine 5'-cyclic monophosphate, adenosine 5'-monophosphate, adenosine 5'-diphosphate, and adenosine 5'-triphosphate. Tin-carbon hyperconjugation within the organotin compound is hypothesized to be critically important in the selective response to phosphate. Enhancement of tin-carbon hyperconjugation by increasing the electron-withdrawing power of substituents on the benzyl ring is predicted to provide even higher levels of selectivity for phosphate.

Benzyl Compounds↗
PubMed1994

Selective inhibition of immature CD4-CD8+ thymocyte proliferation, but not differentiation, by the thymus atrophy-inducing compound di-n-butyltin dichloride.

Effects of the thymus atrophy-inducing organotin compound di-n-butyltin dichloride (DBTC) on the differentiation and proliferation of immature rat thymocyte subsets were studied in vivo and in vitro. Incubation of freshly isolated CD4-CD8- or immature CD4-CD8+ (characterized as CD4-CD53-) thymocytes with 10(-7) M DBTC for 18 hr did not affect cell recovery or their ability to differentiate to CD4-CD8+ cells and CD4+CD8+ or to CD4+CD8+ cells, respectively. The same treatment decreased the spontaneous as well as the phytohaemagglutinin (PHA)-induced proliferation in both subsets. However, the inhibition of proliferation by DBTC of immature CD4-CD8+, but not of CD4-CD8- thymocytes, appeared to increase with their growth rate. Data show that differentiation of immature thymocytes can proceed independently of proliferation and that DBTC causes thymus atrophy by selectively inhibiting the proliferation of immature CD4-CD8+ thymocytes. Administration to rats of DBTC via the diet for 14 days resulted in an initial decrease of thymoblast number by day 2, followed by a decrease in the total number of thymocytes by day 4. Total thymocyte numbers were lowest on day 7 and did not significantly change thereafter. CD4/CD8 thymocyte subset distributions were similar to controls on day 4, but on day 7 of feeding a marked reduction of the percentage of CD4+CD8+ thymocytes and consequently an increase of the percentages of the three other CD4/CD8 subsets were found. Thereafter, the CD4/CD8 subset distribution recovered, reaching near control values on day 14, despite the very low numbers of thymoblasts and of total thymocytes at that time. Data together indicate that DBTC reduces the production of CD4+CD8+ and mature single-positive thymocytes by selectively inhibiting immature CD4-CD8+ thymocyte proliferation but without affecting the differentiation capacity of these cells. This suggests that thymocyte proliferation and differentiation are separately regulated processes.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Evaluation of inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry as an elemental detector for supercritical fluid chromatography.

Supercritical fluid chromatography coupled with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry shows high potential for the determination at ultratrace levels of organometallic compounds of environmental interest. In this study the determination of organotin compounds at ultratrace levels is demonstrated. In this work a supercritical fluid chromatography/inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (SFC/ICPMS) interface was developed. Separation of tetraalkyltin compounds shows detection levels in the subpicogram range (0.034 pg for tetrabutyltin; 0.047 pg for tetraphenyltin). The linear ranges are over 3 orders magnitude (1-1000 pg). The reproducibility of sample injections are better than 5% RSD.

Chromatography, Liquid↗
PubMed2002

Organotin pollution in deep-sea fish from the northwestern Mediterranean.

Aquatic pollution resulting from extensive usage of organotin compounds has been of great concern due to their deleterious effects in nontarget organisms. However, organotin contamination in deep-sea ecosystems has been rarely studied. The presentwork attempted to determine butyltin and phenyltin compounds in deep-sea fish collected between 1000 and 1800 m depth in the NW Mediterranean. The concentration of tributyltin (TBT) and its degradation products, mono- (MBT) and dibutyltin (DBT), aswell astriphenyltin (TPT),and mono- anddiphenyltin (MPT, DPT) was determined in different tissues (liver, gills, digestive tube, and muscle) of several fish species. Total butyltin residues were up to 175 ng/g wet wt, and they were comparable to levels found in coastal fish collected along the Catalan coast. In contrast, deep-sea fish contained much higher levels of phenyltins (up to 1700 ng/g wet wt), and particularly TPT (up to 1430 ng/g wet wt), than previously reported concentrations in shallow-water organisms. The obtained results confirm the long-range transport of organotin compounds to the deep-sea environment, and the subsequent exposure of fish inhabiting nonpoint source areas. The use of TPT in agriculture or as an antifouling agent, its transport to the deep-sea environment associated to particulate matter, and its nonbiodegradable nature in the food chain may account for the high residue levels detected in deep-sea organisms.

Agriculture↗