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PubMed1989

Hypnotic blindness, awareness, and attribution.

Examined whether performance on a spelling task would be influenced by visual information in the reported absence of hypnotized subjects' awareness of that information. Experiment 1 visually presented uncommon spellings of homophones to subjects before and during a suggestion for hypnotic blindness, and subsequently tested subjects' spelling of the homophones. Words presented during hypnotic blindness influenced subjects' spelling performance. Subjects' attributions of their performance did not involve awareness of the homophones. Experiment 2 used the nonexperiment methodology to examine the impact of demand characteristics and indicated that the performance attributions of subjects of Experiment 1 could not be explained in these terms. The discussion focuses on implicit perception in hypnotic blindness and on the relevance of attributions about behavioral performance on hypnotic phenomena.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Literalism as a marker of hypnotic "trance": disconfirming evidence.

The responses given by highly hypnotizable, hypnotic subjects and those of unhypnotizable subjects who simulated hypnosis to questions of the type, "Do you mind telling me your name?" and "Do you mind standing up?" were contrasted. The purpose was to examine Erickson's (1980) assertion that literalism (answering "yes" or "no" verbally or nonverbally without any cognitive elaboration) is a marker of hypnotic "trance." Simulators exhibited a greater rate of literalism than hypnotic "virtuosos" (i.e., extreme scorers on both group and individual hypnotizability measures). Hypnotized subjects and nonhypnotized subjects approached in the campus library responded comparably. Because less than a third of hypnotic virtuosos responded literally, our results strongly refuted Erickson's assertion that literalism is a cognitive feature of hypnosis.

Cognition↗
PubMed1982

Suggestions for altered auditory sensitivity, the negative subject effect and hypnotic susceptibility: a signal detection analysis.

Two experiments used signal detection procedures to assess the effects of hypnotic susceptibility, a hypnotic induction procedure, and suggestions for altering auditory acuity on measures of sensitivity and response bias. In Experiment 1, low susceptibles showed higher sensitivity than high susceptibles, and hypnotic induction failed to affect the sensitivity of either highs or lows. Among the high susceptibles, suggestions to either increase or decrease acuity produced increments in sensitivity and reduced individual differences. Thus, suggestions (regardless of the direction of change suggested) probably motivated highs who would have otherwise performed inefficiently to perform as efficiently as the low susceptibles. With respect to response bias, high-susceptible hypnotic subjects given a suggestion for increased acuity behaved in terms of suggested demands; they showed an increased tendency to response "signal." Low-susceptible hypnotic subjects given the same suggestion responded in a counterdemand or "negative subject" fashion; they developed a bias to say "noise." Experiment 2 used a more difficult discrimination task to replicate and extend this counterdemand effect in low susceptibles. Implications for hypnosis research and for research on the negative subject effect are discussed.

Auditory Perception↗
PubMed1984

Hypnotic amnesia as a strategic enactment: breaching amnesia in highly susceptible subjects.

Hypnotically amnesic subjects frequently maintain their amnesia in the face of strong and repeated exhortations to recall honestly and to try their best to recall. Some investigators have argued that these subjects lose control over memory processes and, consequently, are unable to recall the material for which amnesia had been suggested. We propose instead that amnesic subjects maintain control over their memory processes. They often fail to breach amnesia because to do so would conflict with their self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. In two interrelated experiments we demonstrated that highly susceptible hypnotically amnesic subjects could be easily induced to recall all of the "forgotten" target items by defining successful recall as supportive of rather than as inconsistent with a self-presentation as deeply hypnotized. In the first part of Experiment 1, all subjects showed amnesia despite repeated demands to recall honestly. In the second part of this experiment, subjects were led to believe that they possessed a "hidden part" to their mind that remained aware of the target items covered by the amnesia suggestion. Each subject recalled all of the forgotten items when the experimenter contacted their hidden part. In Experiment 2 we replicated this effect and also demonstrated that the characteristics of subjects' hidden reports were a function of the instructions they received and did not reflect the operation of a dissociated cognitive subsystem that subconsciously held the forgotten items. These findings are inconsistent with traditional theorizing about hypnosis, but offer strong support for the hypothesis that hypnotic amnesia is a strategic enactment under the subject's voluntary control.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

Hypnotically induced pseudomemories--sampling their conditions among hypnotizable subjects.

Three studies are reported in a program of research that investigated a range of parameters affecting individual differences in the incidence of hypnotically induced pseudomemory among hypnotizable subjects. Study 1 replicated Laurence and Perry's (1983b) base rates for hypnotically induced pseudomemory response among hypnotizable subjects; in Study 2 the same response was analyzed under more strictly controlled stimulus conditions. Study 3 was an investigation of the impact of a broader range of stimulus events on response and a more sensitive test of the hypothesis that individual differences in pseudomemory effects are tied essentially to the social context of hypnosis. In all three studies, independent groups of subjects were tested who were highly responsive to hypnotic suggestion. Data indicated that the incidence of pseudomemory response was stable and consistent when stringent criteria of scoring were adopted. Also, for some subjects, real and suggested memories were maintained at one and the same time when hypnotically induced memory was examined in different test settings, suggesting that pseudomemories do not permanently overlay real experience. Overall, contextual factors appeared to play a major role among susceptible subjects in determining the nature and incidence of hypnotically induced pseudomemories.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

The effects of contextual information and gender on the prediction of hypnotic susceptibility.

Council, Kirsch, and Hafner (1986) obtained empirical support for the hypothesis that significant correlations between questionnaire measures of absorption and hypnotic susceptibility are an artifact of subjects' beliefs about their own hypnotizability. We tested this hypothesis in a two-session experiment. During Session 1, subjects completed questionnaire measures of absorption, mystical experience, daydreaming frequency, and paranormal beliefs. During Session 2, subjects were tested for hypnotic susceptibility. Subjects were also exposed to one of three information manipulations: They were told about hypnotic testing either before or after filling out the questionnaires or were not told about hypnotic testing. The information manipulation moderated the prediction of susceptibility by the questionnaire measures for women, but not for men. For women, scores on the absorption questionnaire predicted susceptibility only when subjects were informed about hypnotic testing. In the told-after condition, this effect generalized to all of the remaining questionnaire measures. For men, none of the questionnaires was a reliable predictor of susceptibility.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Day persons, night persons, and variability in hypnotic susceptibility.

Day persons (those most alert during daytime hours) and night persons participated in 2 experiments to examine within-subject variability of scores over time on the Harvard Group Scale of Hypnotic Susceptibility, Form A, and the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale, Form C. Regardless of scale used, day persons exhibited peak susceptibility at 10 a.m. and 2 p.m.; for night persons, peak susceptibility was found at 1 p.m. and between 6 p.m. and 9 p.m. Furthermore, 2 peaks of temperature increase (1 p.m. and 6 p.m.) appeared to be associated with peaks in hypnotic susceptibility. However, such was shown to be associated with periods of food intake rather than with increases in hypnotic susceptibility. Results are examined with respect to methodological concerns and the potential existence of ultradian rhythms for hypnotic responsiveness.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Hypnotic endpoints vs. the bispectral index, 95% spectral edge frequency and median frequency during propofol infusion with or without fentanyl.

Hypnotic endpoints and/or EEG variables, e.g. bispectral index, 95% spectral edge frequency and median frequency, have been studied to monitor anaesthetic (hypnotic) depth during total intravenous anaesthesia. In this study, the relation between the hypnotic endpoints of unresponsiveness to verbal commands, loss of eyelash reflex and body movement response to mechanical nasal membrane stimulation vs. bispectral index, 95% spectral edge frequency and median frequency during propofol anaesthesia with or without fentanyl is presented. Forty-two patients were randomly assigned to receive either propofol infusion, 30 mg kg-1 h-1 (n = 22), or propofol infusion, 30 mg kg-1 h-1 + fentanyl bolus, 2 micrograms kg-1 i.v. (n = 20). Bispectral index, 95% spectral edge frequency and median frequency and propofol doses were monitored and recorded at unresponsiveness to verbal commands, loss of eyelash reflex and inhibition of nasal body movement response. The bispectral index values were significantly higher in the propofol + fentanyl compared with the propofol group, i.e. 74.7 +/- 10.9, 73.1 +/- 10.5 and 47.1 +/- 9.2 vs. 65.8 +/- 9.8, 59.6 +/- 10 and 33.8 +/- 5.7 at unresponsiveness to verbal commands, loss of eyelash reflex and inhibition of nasal body movement response respectively. Doses of propofol for achieving the hypnotic endpoints were significantly lower in the propofol + fentanyl compared with the propofol group. Plasma propofol concentrations at inhibition of nasal body movement response were lower in the propofol + fentanyl compared with the propofol group (9.2 +/- 2.0 micrograms mL-1 vs. 14.1 +/- 4.2 micrograms mL-1). Our results suggest that fentanyl pretreatment potentiates the effects of propofol and achieves the hypnotic endpoints at higher bispectral index values and lower propofol doses and concentrations (measured at inhibition of nasal body movement response).

Adjuvants, Anesthesia↗
PubMed2001

Efficacy of induction and difficulty level in durability of post-hypnotic suggestions.

We examined whether participants instructed to reenter a hypnotic state as part of the post-hypnotic suggestion (PHS) show less decay in responding over an 8-week period than participants who do not receive such instructions. We also attempted to replicate Trussell, Kurtz, and Strube's (1996) finding on impact of difficulty level of suggestion on response curve. Fifty-nine highly susceptible participants were selected by the Stanford Hypnotic Susceptibility Scale: Form C (SHSS:C) and were assigned to one of four groups (two levels of Difficulty [easy-hard] x two levels of Condition [hypnotic PHS, non-hypnotic PHS]). Participants were tested for PHS at 1, 3, 6, and 8 weeks. A 2 x 2 x 4 (Difficulty x Condition x Time) factorial ANOVA was conducted, with Time as a repeated-measure. The outcome variable at each time was either pass or fail for relevant suggestion. None of the effects containing Condition as a term were significant indicating there is no advantage to using Berrigan, Kurtz, Stabile, and Strube's (1991) atypical induction technique to influence the durability of PHS. We found a significant Time effect but failed to replicate Trussell et al.'s findings for Difficulty level. The differing results found in these three recent studies (Berrigan et al., Trussell et al., and the current study) suggest the effects for durability of PHS may be quite fragile in spite of rigorous experimental controls used in all three studies.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Defining hypnosis as a trance vs. cooperation: hypnotic inductions, suggestibility, and performance standards.

We compared participants' responsiveness to a standard administration of a hypnotic suggestibility scale (CURSS; Spanos, Radtke, Hodgins, Bertrand, Stam, & Moretti, 1983) that defined the ability to experience hypnosis in terms of cooperation (SI; standard induction, N = 27) with a version of the same scale administered with all references to cooperation removed (CR; cooperation removed, N = 34) and with a version of the scale with the "induction" removed (NI; no induction, N = 35). In a fourth condition, participants were informed that the ability to experience hypnosis depended on their ability to achieve an altered state of consciousness or "trance" (AS; altered state, N = 33). Removing instructions for cooperation had an effect on objective (CR < SI) but not on subjective hypnotic responding. Removing the hypnotic induction had no appreciable effect on any dimension of hypnotic responsivity. Consistent with predictions derived from performance standards theory (Lynn & Rhue, 1991), participants who received the altered state set responded to fewer suggestions than did participants who received the standard induction (SI). Estimates of suggestions passed that were assessed before and after test suggestions were administered were, respectively, weakly to moderately correlated with objective and subjective measures of hypnotic suggestibility.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A continuum of hypnotherapeutic interactions: from formal hypnosis to hypnotic conversation.

Hypnotherapeutic interactions can be mapped on a continuum from formal hypnosis to hypnotic conversation. Unlike the structured forms of formal hypnosis, hypnotic conversation relies upon utilizing the client's responses, both verbal and non-verbal, to facilitate therapeutic process. In this paper, we illustrate this continuum with a series of anecdotal clinical examples starting with formal hypnosis and moving incrementally towards hypnotic conversation. Finally, we offer an example similar in appearance to formal hypnosis, but now described in the context of hypnotic conversation. We are neither putting forth a theory nor offering a new perspective for those who research hypnosis as a phenomenon. Rather, these ideas and metaphors serve to broaden the framework of what constitutes hypnotic interaction so as to evoke new opportunities for increasing therapeutic efficiency and efficacy.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

A meta-analysis of hypnotically induced analgesia: how effective is hypnosis?

Over the past two decades, hypnoanalgesia has been widely studied; however, no systematic attempts have been made to determine the average size of hypnoanalgesic effects or establish the generalizability of these effects from the laboratory to the clinic. This study examines the effectiveness of hypnosis in pain management, compares studies that evaluated hypnotic pain reduction in healthy volunteers vs. those using patient samples, compares hypnoanalgesic effects and participants' hypnotic suggestibility, and determines the effectiveness of hypnotic suggestion for pain relief relative to other nonhypnotic psychological interventions. Meta-analysis of 18 studies revealed a moderate to large hypnoanalgesic effect, supporting the efficacy of hypnotic techniques for pain management. The results also indicated that hypnotic suggestion was equally effective in reducing both clinical and experimental pain. The overall results suggest broader application of hypnoanalgesic techniques with pain patients.

Analgesia↗
PubMed2000

Cardiovascular reactivity during hypnosis and hypnotic susceptibility: three studies of heart rate variability.

This paper was designed to examine the relationship between hypnotic susceptibility and cardiovascular measures, especially parasympathetic activity, in 3 separate studies. In these studies, neither heart rate nor heart rate variability differed between the high and low hypnotically susceptible individuals at the initial baseline. Furthermore, in the first study, experimental tasks designed to elicit differential sympathetic and parasympathetic cardiac responses demonstrated no interaction with hypnotic susceptibility. Overall, these 3 studies suggest that hypnotic susceptibility in itself is not associated with parasympathetic aspects of either basal cardiac states or cardiac responses. In addition, a hypnotic induction itself did not differentially influence parasympathetic activity for the high versus low susceptible individuals.

Electrocardiography↗
PubMed2001

Frontal lobe contributions to hypnotic susceptibility: a neuropsychological screening of executive functioning.

Current theory on the cognitive mechanisms of hypnotic experience suggests that hypnosis is mediated by a dissociation between contention-scheduling mechanisms and a supervisory attention system. This theory is based on neuropsychological research with frontal lobe dysfunction patients, who show performance deficits similar in executive functioning to hypnotized individuals. To test an extension of this theory, high hypnotically susceptible (n = 9) and low hypnotically susceptible (n = 7) participants were given four tests of executive functioning. In a baseline condition, high susceptible individuals performed significantly better on one of the four tests (the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test). The role of increased cognitive flexibility in hypnotic susceptibility is considered as a possible component of the dissociated control model of hypnosis.

Cognition↗
PubMed2005

Motor imagery in hypnosis: accuracy and duration of motor imagery in waking and hypnotic states.

This study assessed response times and accuracy of motor imagery in waking and hypnotic states and to related responses to hypnotic experiences. The Vividness of Motor Imagery Questionnaire (VMIQ) was administered to 47 participants. A mental walking task was then performed in the waking state. In hypnosis, the same task was included within an imaginary journey after a hypnotic induction. An interaction effect showed for condition (waking vs. hypnotic) and distances. The further the participants had to walk in imagination, the longer they took. For all combinations, participants took significantly longer in hypnosis (p < .001) and were significantly less accurate in hypnosis in reproducing the difference between the different distances (p < .001). Results appear to show a relationship between motor imagery and hypnotic responding and support a state-trait conception of imagery.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Cognitive strategies in hypnosis: toward resolving the hypnotic conflict.

2 experiments were carried out to assess the relative contributions of dissociation and absorption as cognitive strategies employed by high and low hypnotizable Ss in responding successfully to hypnotic suggestions. Of special interest was the manner in which Ss deal with conflicting information typically inherent in hypnotic suggestions. In the first experiment, Ss rated their attentional focus and the involuntariness of their experience after responding to a number of hypnotic suggestions administered in the usual manner. In the second experiment, the level of conflict was varied by instructing some Ss to imagine a circumstance that was congruent and other Ss to imagine a circumstance that was incongruent with the suggested behavioral response. The results of the 2 experiments were consistent in suggesting that, depending upon the nature of the hypnotic suggestion, high hypnotizable Ss are able to employ dissociation or absorption in order to respond successfully. Low hypnotizable Ss, on the other hand, seem to be relatively ineffective dissociators. When the structure of the hypnotic suggestion precludes the use of absorption, the performance of low hypnotizables deteriorates.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Time distortion--a comparison of hypnotic induction and progressive relaxation procedures: a brief communication.

Hypnotic experiences are frequently associated with alteration in temporal perception. 24 male and 24 female Ss were asked to estimate the interval associated with hypnotic, relaxation, or control procedures. Only the group that received the hypnotic condition displayed significant distortions in time estimations. These were primarily underestimations (temporal constriction or "time loss") compared to the more normal distributions of estimations for the other 2 groups of Ss. The hypnotic treatment explained about 35% of the variance in the absolute distortion of time estimates. The present study demonstrates that subjective distortions of time experience during a hypnotic procedure are more than an artifact of deep relaxation or instruction.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Assessment of hypnotic processes and responsiveness in a clinical context.

The present study was designed to investigate in a clinical situation whether differences in measured hypnotizability validly reflect differences in hypnotic processes and to what extent factors deemed extraneous to hypnosis--such as resistance--influence hypnotic responding. To answer this question, Dutch versions of relevant scales had to first be developed. The factorial validity and reliability of a Dutch translation of the Resistance Toward Hypnosis Scale (DRHS) and a shortened Dutch version of the Phenomenology of Consciousness Inventory (DPCI) were investigated in a sample of 205 psychiatric patients. The DRHS proved to be factorially valid and reliable, and two subscales, Trance and Reality Orientation, derived empirically from the DPCI showed good to satisfactory reliability. In a second study with a subsample of 99 psychiatric patients, hypnotizability as measured by the Stanford Hypnotic Clinical Scale for Adults was strongly and positively related to DPCI Trance scores and moderately and negatively related to DPCI Reality Orientation and DRHS Resistance scores. It is concluded that hypnotizability as measured in a clinical context under standard conditions is strongly related to hypnotic experiences over and above the moderate effects of resistance toward hypnosis and hypnotic suggestions. Standard hypnotizability assessments appear to be similar in their meaning in an experimental and clinical context.

Adolescent↗