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PubMed1996

Obtaining information about susceptibility from the epidemiological literature.

Whether people become ill after encountering environmental pollutants depends on the magnitude of their exposure and their capacity to respond. Exposure and intrinsic response capabilities vary within the population. Those that become ill when the general population remains largely unaffected are considered to be highly susceptible. The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), responsible for protecting the public from environmental pollutants, has developed risk assessment procedures to assist in evaluating the likelihood of health effects. However, the Agency's ability to evaluate the risk faced by highly susceptible populations is often hindered by the paucity of adequate health effects data. Response variability can be assessed with animal models and human epidemiological studies. Although animal models are useful when evaluating the effect of gender and developmental stage on susceptibility, inbred rodent strains underestimate the genetic and lifestyle-induced variability in susceptibility found in human populations. Epidemiological approaches are the preferred source of information on variability. This paper reviews the epidemiological literature from the perspective of a risk assessor seeking data suitable for estimating the risk to highly susceptible populations. Epidemiological approaches do not measure the full range of population response variability. Rather, "susceptibility factors" are evaluated either as risk factors or by focusing on the susceptible population, e.g. children. Susceptibility factors due to genetics, developmental stage, gender, ethnicity, disease state and lifestyle are most frequently encountered. Often, the information describing the health impact of the susceptibility factor is incomplete due to, (1) a failure to consider factors modifying susceptibility; (2) inadequate exposure data; (3) a failure to evaluate the health impact of the susceptibility factor. In addition, for a given exposure agent, several susceptibility factors may be relevant. While incomplete data describing susceptibility factors limits the opportunity for quantitative estimations of risk, available information can supplement qualitative evaluations and risk management.

Animals↗
PubMed1980

Review of the dioxin problem. Mass spectrometric analyses of tetrachlorodioxins in environmental samples.

Major concern over the chemical group of chlorodioxins has arisen since 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin with its extremely toxic and teratogenic properties has been found in widely distributed pesticides such as the herbicide 2,4,5-trichlorophenoxy acetic acid. Because of its chemical stability and lipophilic nature, 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin released into the environment has the potential of accumulation in the food chain. Mass spectrometry in its various forms has been the method of choice to detect and confirm low parts per billion of 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin. Recently, a Consensus Forum held at the National Center for Toxicological Research amongst the various United States Government agencies (Food and Drug Administration, Environmental Protection Agency, US Department of Agriculture and National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences), eloquently demonstrated the potential, as well as the shortcomings, of the various techniques applied. In particular, the availability of a stable 13C labeled 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin has proved to be an essential component to achieve low level quantitation. A brief review of the findings of the Consensus Forum is presented together with a detailed survey of the application of atmospheric pressure ionization mass spectrometry to TCDD analysis at the National Center for Toxicological Research/Food and Drug Administration.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Air toxics and asthma: impacts and end points.

The National Urban Air Toxics Research Center (NUATRC) hosted a medical/scientific workshop focused on possible asthma/air toxics relationships, with the results of the NUATRC's first research contract with the University of Cincinnati as the point of discussion. The workshop was held at the Texas Medical Center on 4 February 1994 and featured presentations by distinguished academic, government, and industry scientists. This one-day session explored the impact of various environmental factors, including air toxics, on asthma incidence and exacerbation; an emphasis was placed on future research directions to be pursued in the asthma/air toxics area. A key research presentation on the association of air toxics and asthma, based on the study sponsored by NUATRC, was given by Dr. George Leikauf of the University of Cincinnati Medical Center. Additional presentations were made by H. A. Boushey, Jr., Cardiovascular Research Institute/University of California at San Francisco, who spoke on of the Basic Mechanisms of Asthma; K. Sexton, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, who spoke on hazardous air pollutants: science/policy interface; and D. V. Bates, Department of Health Care and Epidemiology at the University of British Columbia, who spoke on asthma epidemiology. H. Koren, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, and M. Yeung, of the Respiratory Division/University of British Columbia, Vancouver General Hospital, discussed occupational health impacts on asthma. Doyle Pendleton, Texas Natural Resource Conservation Commission, reviewed air quality measurements in Texas. The information presented at the workshop suggested a possible association of asthma exacerbations with ozone and particulate matter (PM10); however, direct relationships between worsening asthma and air toxic ambient levels were not established. Possible respiratory health effects associated with air toxics will require considerably more investigation, especially in the area of human exposure assessment. Two major recommendations for future research resulted from this workshop and an accompanying NUATRC Scientific Advisory Panel meeting: a need for more complete individual personal exposure assessments so that accurate determinations of actual personal exposures to various pollutants can be made; and a need for field experiments utilizing biomarkers of exposure and effect to more accurately assess the extent and variability of the biological effects, if any, of individual air toxics.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Differences between children and adults: implications for risk assessment at California EPA.

The California legislature enacted a law requiring the California Environmental Protection Agency (Cal/EPA) Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA) to evaluate whether our risk assessment methodologies are adequately protective of infants and children. In addition both OEHHA and the California Air Resources Board must examine whether the Ambient Air Quality Standards set for criteria air pollutants and the health values developed for air toxics are adequately protective of infants and children. We have initiated a program to look at potential differences in response to toxicants between children and adults. We are evaluating this issue from the perspective of exposure differences as well as toxicokinetic and toxicodynamic differences between children and adults. Data on specific chemicals are rather limited. As a result, we will be pooling information to determine whether there are generic differences between children and adults that may be applicable to risk assessment in general or to risk assessment of specific classes of compounds. This paper discusses the rationale for approaching the issue of determining whether our risk assessment methods are adequate for infants and children and includes a discussion of some of the available information on both qualitative and quantitative differences in response to toxicants between children and adults or immature and mature laboratory animals. We provide examples of differences between children and adults in absorption, metabolism, and excretion of toxicants as well as qualitative differences in toxic response.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Toxicological and environmental health information from the National Library of Medicine.

The National Library of Medicine's Toxicology and Environmental Health Information Program is the outgrowth of a 1966 document on "Handling of Toxicological Information," prepared by the Presidents Science Advisory Committee (National Library of Medicine, 1995). The Toxicology and Environmental Health Program is responsible for the creation and deployment of both bibliographic and factual files concerned with toxicology, carcinogenesis, developmental and reproductive effects of chemical substances, toxic chemical releases, and the medical and environmental behavior of chemical substances. The two main computer systems that provide bibliographic and factual data banks are Toxicology Data Network (TOXNET) and ELHILL. A number of the files found in the TOXNET system are built and maintained by other federal agencies such as the National Cancer Institute, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

Cleanup protocol for 226Ra-contaminated cobbly soil at UMTRA Project sites.

The nonuniform distribution of 226Ra and other radiological contamination of cobbly soil encountered on several Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action Project sites is presented and discussed, and the concomitant challenges to the intent and implementation of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's soil cleanup standards are noted. In response to technical assessments and information presented to the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission by the U.S. Department of Energy, the Nuclear Regulatory Commission has recently resolved the dilemma by concluding that compliance with Environmental Protection Agency soil cleanup standards for cobby soil at Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action Project sites would be adequately attained using bulk radionuclide concentrations, instead of requiring that the radionuclide concentration of the finer soil fraction passing a #4 mesh sieve met the standards. A Nuclear Regulatory Commission-approved procedure developed for cobbly soil remediation is outlined and discussed. The site-specific implementation of this procedure at Uranium Mill Tailings Remedial Action Project sites containing cobbly soil is estimated to save millions of dollars.

Colorado↗
PubMed1997

Endocrine disruptors and reproductive development: a weight-of-evidence overview.

It is clear that the endocrine system presents a number of target sites for the induction of adverse effects by environmental agents (Fig. 1). There are numerous examples demonstrating that reproductive and developmental processes may be exquisitely sensitive to exposure and there are clear effects induced by presumed endocrine-disrupting chemicals in a variety of species. The concerns raised by studies of wildlife and humans place added significance on a better understanding of the myriad of effects attributed to endocrine disruptors. But there remains a large void between the study of relatively high exposure levels used in laboratory settings versus the relatively low levels found in the general environment. It is also equally clear that the term "endocrine disruption' has been applied to situations where the biological basis is far from conclusive. This may be a moot point in situations where populations are experiencing adverse effects on reproduction, but as scientists we must be vigilant of the appropriate use of descriptive terminology, particularly in cases where public awareness and concern are as great as this. Not only is there a need for better test procedures (both in vivo and in vitro) to characterize the potential of environmental agents to disrupt endocrine function in laboratory species, but there is also a need for a more comprehensive understanding of the normal physiological processes associated with reproduction and development in those wildlife species studied. At the same time, obtaining better information on the transport, fate and bioavailability of chemicals released into the environment remains an important but imposing task. The goals of risk characterization are to carefully delineate cause-and-effect relationships, define the dose-response relationships, and determine whether environmental exposures exceed acceptable levels. A concerted research effort is needed to fill the voids in our knowledge and reduce the large uncertainties that exist today. Only then can regulatory actions take place within the confines of legislative mandates, remediation strategies and considerations of international use and transport. Towards this end, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sponsored two workshops in 1995 (Ankley et al. 1996, Kavlock et al. 1996) at which groups of international scientists began the process of identifying research needs. Similar efforts also took place in several European countries at about the same time (Danish Environmental Protection Agency 1995, Medical Research Council 1995, Umweltbundesamt 1995). More recently, a Working Group on Endocrine Disruptors has been established within the Committee on the Environment and Natural Resources of the US Government's National Science and Technology Council. The objectives of this Working Group are to (1) formulate a framework for identifying research needs related to the health and ecological effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals; (2) conduct an inventory of on-going federal research programs; and (3) identify research gaps and facilitate a co-ordinated research plan to address them. These efforts were largely completed in the Fall of 1996 and the information will be made available via the Internet (http;@www.cpa.gov/endocrine). The group also plans to work more broadly with other governments and private industry and public interest groups conducting research on this tissue to co-ordinate research and disseminate scientific information. Persons wishing to know more about this effort should contact the authors. The issue of endocrine disruption has raised the consciousness of many researchers, both within and outside the toxicology community, and has attracted considerable public and political interest. We now have the beginnings of international co-operation to identify the most important scientific uncertainties and to dedicate resources to address the critical gaps. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Trichloroethylene health risk assessment: a new and improved process.

Trichloroethylene (TCE), an environmental contaminant of National concern, is the focus of a new health risk assessment process incorporating the Proposed Cancer Risk Assessment Guidelines. This paper describes not only how TCE became an environmental problem for the Air Force, but also details the new Risk Assessment process envisioned by the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) National Center for Environmental Assessment (NCEA). Insights on epidemiological evaluations, both past and future, and their impact on the cancer classification of TCE are discussed. Examples of how physiologically based pharmacokinetics and dose-response characterization described in the new Cancer Guidelines are applied to TCE are provided. In addition, a variety of modeling techniques are discussed for the development of reference doses (oral exposure) and reference concentrations (inhalation exposures) for TCE. Finally, the role of risk communication is included. This new process provides an example of how interagency (EPA, Department of Defense. Department of Energy) and extramural (industry, academia) partnerships can provide greater gains to the nation, as a whole, than any of the parts on their own.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Turning free speech into corporate speech: Philip Morris' efforts to influence U.S. and European journalists regarding the U.S. EPA report on secondhand smoke.

BACKGROUND: Previously secret internal tobacco company documents show that the tobacco industry launched an extensive multifaceted effort to influence the scientific debate about the harmful effects of secondhand smoke. Integral to the industry's campaign was an effort to derail the Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA) risk assessment on environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) by recruiting a network of journalists to generate news articles supporting the industry's position and pushing its public relations messages regarding the ETS issue. METHODS: Searches of previously secret internal tobacco industry records were conducted online and at the Minnesota Tobacco Document Depository. In addition, searches on the World Wide Web were conducted for each National Journalism Center alumnus. Lexis-Nexis was used to locate news stories written by the journalists cited in this paper. RESULTS: Philip Morris turned to its public relations firm Burson Marsteller to "build considerable reasonable doubt em leader particularly among consumers" about the "scientific weaknesses" of the EPA report. A Washington, DC, media and political consultant Richard Hines was a key player in carrying out Burson Marsteller's media recommendations of "EPA bashing" for Philip Morris. In March 1993, Philip Morris' vice president of corporate affairs policy and administration reported to Steve Parrish, vice president and general counsel of Philip Morris, that their consultant was "responsible for a number of articles that have appeared in em leader major news publications regarding EPA and ETS." In addition to placing favorable stories in the press through its consultant, Philip Morris sought to expand its journalist network by financially supporting a U.S. school of journalism; the National Journalism Center (NJC). Philip Morris gleaned "about 15 years worth of journalists at print and visual media throughout the country em leader to get across [its] side of the story" resulting in "numerous pieces consistent with our point of view." The company planned to "design innovative strategies to communicate [its] position on ETS through education programs targeting policy makers and the media" via the NJC. Finally, journalists associated with think tanks that were financially supported by Philip Morris wrote numerous articles critical of the EPA. CONCLUSIONS: This is the first report, from the tobacco industry's own documents, to show the extent to which the tobacco industry has gone to influence the print media on the issue of the health effects of secondhand smoke. Unfortunately, what we report here is that even journalists can fall victim to well-orchestrated and presented public relations efforts regardless of their scientific validity. It is not clear how various professional media organizations oversee the ethical conduct of their members. Certainly, on the topic of the health effects of secondhand smoke, more scrutiny is warranted from these organizations for articles written by their members lest the public be misinformed and thus ill served.

Conflict of Interest↗
PubMed1986

Variables affecting two electron transport system assays.

Several methodological variables were critical in two commonly used electron transport activity assays. The dehydrogenase assay based on triphenyl formazan production exhibited a nonlinear relationship between formazan production (dehydrogenase activity) and sediment dilution, and linear formazan production occurred for 1 h in sediment slurries. Activity decreased with increased time of sediment storage at 4 degrees C. Extraction efficiencies of formazan from sediment varied with alcohol type; methanol was unsatisfactory. Phosphate buffer (0.06 M) produced higher activity than did either U.S. Environmental Protection Agency reconstituted hard water or Tris buffer sediment diluents. Intracellular formazan crystals were dissolved within minutes when in contact with immersion oil. Greater crystal production (respiration) detected by a tetrazolium salt assay occurred at increased substrate concentrations. Test diluents containing macrophyte exudates produced greater activity than did phosphate buffer, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency water, or ultrapure water diluents. Both assays showed decreases in sediment or bacterial activity through time.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Validation of a geographic information system for the evaluation of the soil radon exhalation potential in South-Tyrol and Veneto, Italy.

The PERS (soil radon exhalation potential) project was promoted by ANPA (Italian Environmental Protection Agency) together with the Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore of Rome: the aim was to produce a geographic information system allowing the discovery of regions with different radon exhalation potential starting from some territorial knowledge. Some environmental measurements were carried out within this project in selected areas in South-Tyrol and Veneto. The measurement of radon in springwater and groundwater as well as in soil gas plays a decisive role for the validation of the algorithm for computing the PERS. Along with technical aspects, a possible use of the PERS method by the Regional Environmental Protection Agencies and by other agencies is discussed with the scope of identifying radon prone areas, as stated in the Italian 'Decreto Legislativo' 26 May 2000, n. 241. Moreover the forecasting power of PERS regarding indoor radon concentration is analysed.

Geography↗
PubMed2003

Enhancing compliance at Department of Defense facilities: comparison of three environmental audit tools.

To enhance environmental compliance, the U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) recently developed and implemented a standardized environmental audit tool called The Environmental Assessment and Management (TEAM) Guide. Utilization of a common audit tool (TEAM Guide) throughout DOD agencies could be an effective agent of positive change. If, however, the audit tool is inappropriate, environmental compliance at DOD facilities could worsen. Furthermore, existing audit systems such as the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency's (U.S. EPA's) Generic Protocol for Conducting Environmental Audits of Federal Facilities and the International Organization for Standardization's (ISO's) Standard 14001, "Environmental Management System Audits," may be abandoned even if they offer significant advantages over TEAM Guide audit tool. Widespread use of TEAM Guide should not take place until thorough and independent evaluation has been performed. The purpose of this paper is to compare DOD's TEAM Guide audit tool with U.S. EPA's Generic Protocol for Conducting Environmental Audits of Federal Facilities and ISO 14001, in order to assess which is most appropriate and effective for DOD facilities, and in particular those operated by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE). USACE was selected as a result of one author's recent experience as a district environmental compliance coordinator responsible for the audit mission at this agency. Specific recommendations for enhancing the quality of environmental audits at all DOD facilities also are given.

Environmental Pollutants↗
PubMed2005

Proposed framework for cleanup and site restoration following a terrorist incident involving radioactive material.

Cleanup following a terrorism incident involving a radiological dispersal device (RDD) or improvised nuclear device (IND) is likely to be technically challenging, costly, and politically charged. Lessons learned from the Top Officials 2 exercise and the increased threat of terrorist use of an RDD or IND have driven federal officials to push for an agreed-upon process for determining appropriate cleanup levels. State and local authorities generally have the ultimate responsibility for final public health decisions in their jurisdictions. In response to terrorist attacks, local authorities are likely to request federal assistance in assessing the risk and establishing appropriate cleanup levels. It is realistic to expect local and state requests for significant federal assistance in planning and implementing recovery operations. State and local authorities may desire "shared accountability" with the federal government in setting the appropriate cleanup levels. Government officials at all levels will face pressure to say how clean is clean enough and how quickly people can re-enter affected areas. Issues arising include (1) the nature of the relationship between the federal, state, and local leadership involved in the recovery efforts and (2) where the funding for recovery comes from. Many agencies, including the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC), and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) have long been involved in cleanup activities involving radioactive materials. These agencies have recognized the need for a participatory process and realize the need to remain flexible when faced with possible unprecedented environmental challenges following a terrorist attack. Currently, the Department of Homeland Security has a committee process underway, with participation of the EPA, NRC, DOE, and other federal agencies, to try to resolve these issues and to begin engaging state, local, and tribal governments, and others as appropriate.

Decontamination↗
PubMed1986

Source assessment of hexachlorobenzene from the organic chemical manufacturing industry.

The Office of Solid Waste of the US Environmental Protection Agency determines the hazards of wastes produced by the organic chemical manufacturing industry. Based on these determinations, regulations have been laid down for many wastes under the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act. Additional wastes from this industry will be considered for regulation following further study and evaluation. Among the wastes under study are hexachlorobenzene (HCB)-containing wastes. Although HCB is no longer manufactured in the USA, the US Environmental Protection Agency has estimated that approximately 4130 t are generated annually as a by-product in the production of chlorinated organics and pesticides. Of this total, about 77% (3178 t) is generated from the production of three chlorinated solvents: tetrachloroethylene, carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethylene. All wastewater containing HCB is treated biologically in surface impoundments, resulting in HCB accumulation in the biological sludge. Disposal methods for HCB-containing sludges and distillation bottoms are incineration and landfilling, with 81% (3345 t) being incinerated and 19% (785 t) going to landfills.

Chemical Industry↗
PubMed2000

Environmental ethics.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) held the first meeting on environmental ethics sponsored by the Scientific Advisory Panel and Board on 10-11 December 1998 in Arlington, Virginia (1). The report from the meeting will more completely inform scientists and the community of current issues. This editorial should serve as an initial brief of this meeting [which was held on the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of Human Rights (adopted by the United Nations on 10 December 1948)].

Environmental Exposure↗
PubMed2004

Effects of wintertime ambient air pollutants on asthma exacerbations in urban minority children with moderate to severe disease.

BACKGROUND: Urban minority children with asthma are at higher risk for severe exacerbations leading to hospitalizations and deaths. Because multiple studies have reported associations between air pollution and asthma worsening, elevated levels of air pollution are cited as a possible trigger for increased asthma morbidity in urban areas. Few studies have prospectively followed panels of urban children with asthma to determine whether air pollution levels are associated with clinically relevant outcomes such as asthma exacerbations. OBJECTIVE: To determine the association between levels of ambient air pollutants and asthma exacerbations in urban poor children with moderate to severe asthma. METHODS: A school-based panel of children with difficult-to-control disease was followed over a period of 3 consecutive winters in Denver, Colo. The panel consisted of predominantly urban African American children with moderate to severe asthma. Levels of Environmental Protection Agency criteria air pollutants were measured on a daily basis with concurrent monitoring of lung function, bronchodilator use, symptoms, and asthma exacerbations. RESULTS: After controlling for time-varying factors such as upper respiratory infections and meteorologic factors, a weak association was found between ambient carbon monoxide levels and bronchodilator use. Ozone levels were associated with daytime symptoms only. No association was observed between daily air pollution concentrations and daily levels of FEV 1 , peak flow, nighttime symptom scores, or asthma exacerbations over the 3-year period. CONCLUSION: Ambient levels of Environmental Protection Agency criteria air pollutants in Denver do not lead to clinically significant asthma worsening in urban children with moderate to severe asthma during winter months when children are primarily indoors.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed1999

Consumption and production waste: another externality of tobacco use.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the waste produced by and environmental implications of individual cigarette consumption (filter tips, packages, and cartons) and tobacco manufacturing. STUDY SELECTION: All available articles and reports published since 1970 related to cigarette consumption and production waste were reviewed. DATA SOURCES: Global cigarette consumption data were used to estimate cigarette butt and packaging waste quantities. Data from the Center for Marine Conservation's International Coastal Cleanup Project were used to describe some environmental impacts of tobacco-related trash. Data from the United States Environmental Protection Agency's (EPA's) Toxics Release Inventory and reported global cigarette consumption totals were used to estimate waste production from cigarette manufacturing. DATA EXTRACTION AND SYNTHESIS: In 1995, an estimated 5.535 trillion cigarettes (27,675 million cartons and 276,753 million packages) were sold by the tobacco industry globally. Some of the wastes from these products were properly deposited, but a large amount of tobacco consumption waste ends up in the environment. Some is recovered during environmental clean-up days. For the past eight years (1990-1997), cigarette butts have been the leading item found during the International Coastal Cleanup Project; they accounted for 19.1% of all items collected in 1997. The tobacco manufacturing process produces liquid, solid, and airborne waste. Among those wastes, some materials, including nicotine, are designated by the EPA as Toxics Release Inventory (TRI) chemicals. These are possible environmental health hazards. In 1995, the global tobacco industry produced an estimated 2262 million kilograms of manufacturing waste and 209 million kilograms of chemical waste. In addition, total nicotine waste produced in the manufacture of reduced nicotine cigarettes was estimated at 300 million kilograms. CONCLUSIONS: Laws against littering relative to cigarette butts could be better enforced. Additional taxes might be levied on cigarette products that would then be directed to environmental clean-up efforts. The tobacco industry should improve the biodegradability of filters, reduce packaging waste, and educate its customers. Worksites and public buildings should be encouraged or required to supply appropriate disposal mechanisms at all building entrances. Public awareness campaigns about the magnitude and prevention of cigarette consumption waste could be developed through partnerships among environmental groups, health organisations, and environmental protection agencies. Tobacco production waste should be a source of concern and regulation by governments throughout the world; it contains numerous chemicals which may be considered health hazards, not the least of which is nicotine produced in the manufacture of low-nicotine cigarettes.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed1996

Formulating an Ecosystem Approach to Environmental Protection

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has embraced a new strategy of environmental protection that is place-driven rather than program-driven. This new approach focuses on the protection of entire ecosystems. To develop an effective strategy of ecosystem protection, however, EPA will need to: (1) determine how to define and delineate ecosystems and (2) categorize threats to individual ecosystems and priority rank ecosystems at risk. Current definitions of ecosystem in use at EPA are inadequate for meaningful use in a management or regulatory context. A landscape-based definition that describes an ecosystem as a volumetric unit delineated by climatic and landscape features is suggested. Following this definition, ecosystems are organized hierarchically, from megaecosystems, which exist on a continental scale (e.g., Great Lakes), to small local ecosystems.Threats to ecosystems can generally be categorized as: (1) ecosystem degradation (occurs mainly through pollution) (2) ecosystem alteration (physical changes such as water diversion), and (3) ecosystem removal (e.g., conversion of wetlands or forest to urban or agricultural lands). Level of threat (i.e., how imminent), and distance from desired future condition are also important in evaluating threats to ecosystems. Category of threat, level of threat, and "distance" from desired future condition can be combined into a three-dimensional ranking system for ecosystems at risk. The purpose of the proposed ranking system is to suggest a preliminary framework for agencies such as EPA to prioritize responses to ecosystems at risk.KEY WORDS: Ecosystem approach; Ecological risk assessment; Environmental protection; EPA

Journal Article↗