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PubMed1983

Neuropsychological assessment of learning disabilities: a discriminant analysis.

The neuropsychological test scores of 23 learning disabled children were compared with those of a matched population of normal children in the 9-1 to 13-1 age range. All children were administered the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-Revised (WISC-R), a dichotic listening task involving both free and directed recall conditions, a handedness inventory, the Tactile Performance Test and the Category Test from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Test Battery. A multivariate analysis of variance resulted in a significant separation between groups (p less than .001) using these procedures. A stepwise discriminant function analysis revealed that both of the directed dichotic tasks contributed the most of all 13 measures to the significant group separation. In addition, other cognitive tasks found to discriminate normal from learning disabled children include general verbal processes, concept formation, and tactile memory. These findings suggest that the directed dichotic listening procedure and the WISC-R Verbal IQ measure are reasonably valuable clinical tools in the classification of learning disabilities.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

Cognitive characteristics of the parents of schizophrenic patients.

This article reviews the empirical literature on cognition and communication in the parents of schizophrenic patients to address the questions of whether these parents as a group show evidence of any distinguishing cognitive characteristics and, if so, what those characteristics might be. Included in the review are studies of thought and communication disorder, and psychometric studies of cognitive functioning. We included only those that used reliable measures and included control groups in their designs. Taken together, the findings provide substantial evidence that nonschizophrenic parents of schizophrenic patients as a group demonstrate subtle cognitive difficulties in the area of concept formation and maintenance. There are also indications of other cognitive anomalies that will require further study. We discuss the importance of clarifying the etiological relevance of these findings and of pursuing further research in this area.

Attention↗

PubMed1997

Neuropsychological dysfunction in schizotypal personality disorder: a profile analysis.

In order to examine the neuropsychological profile of schizotypal personality disorder (SPD), we studied a wide array of cognitive functions in 10 right-handed men who met DSM-III-R criteria for SPD and 10 matched normal controls. Cognitive functions included abstraction, verbal and spatial intelligence, memory and learning, language, attention, and motor skills. Neuropsychological profiles were constructed by standardizing test scores based on the means and standard deviations of the normal control group. SPD subjects showed significant decrements in performance on the California Verbal Learning Test, a word-list learning measure which requires semantic clustering for more efficient performance, and on the Wisconsin Card Sort Test, a measure requiring concept formation, abstraction, and mental flexibility. These results suggest possible areas of specific neuropsychological dysfunction in SPD, and are consistent with current hypotheses of left-temporal and prefrontal brain dysfunction in schizophrenia.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

The structure of pigeon multiple-class same-different learning.

Three experiments examined the structure of the decision framework used by pigeons in learning a multiple-class same-different task. Using a same-different choice task requiring the discrimination of odd-item different displays (one or more of the display's component elements differed) from same displays (all display components identical), pigeons were concurrently trained with sets of four discriminable display types. In each experiment, the consistent group was tested such that the same and different displays of four display types were consistently mapped onto their choice alternatives. The inconsistent group received a conflicting mapping of the same and different displays and the choice alternatives that differed across the four display types but were consistent within a display type. Experiment 1 tested experienced pigeons, and Experiment 2 tested naive pigeons. In both experiments, the consistent group learned their discrimination faster and to a higher level of choice accuracy than did the inconsistent group, which performed poorly in general. Only in the consistent group was the discrimination transferred to novel stimuli, indicative of concept formation in that group. A third experiment documented that the different display classes were discriminable from one another. These results suggest that pigeons attempt to generate a single discriminative rule when learning this type of task, and that this general rule can cover a large variety of stimulus elements and organizations, consistent with previous evidence suggesting that pigeons may be capable of learning relatively unbounded relational same-different concepts.

Animals↗

PubMed1983

Language and cognitive deficits resulting from medial and dorsolateral frontal lobe lesions.

A total of 36 patients with chronic unilateral circumscribed medial and dorsolateral frontal lobe lesions were investigated with a range of neuropsychological tests. Lateralized deficits in tasks depending on language functions were found with dorsolateral but not with medial lesions. The specific role of Broca's area could not be confirmed. Lesions of the supplementary motor area led to mild deficits in tests of "concept formation". Frontomedial lesions situated more deeply in the interhemispheric fissure resulted in memory deficits. The results are discussed on the basis of recent neurophysiological theories of brain function.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Language comprehension in schizophrenics and their brothers.

Disturbances in language functioning may be associated with familial vulnerability to schizophrenia. Language comprehension, measured by the Luria-Nebraska Relational Concepts Factor Scale, was evaluated in 36 schizophrenic probands and their nonschizophrenic adult brothers (n = 41), and in 18 normal controls. Language comprehension performance was a function of psychiatric diagnosis in the brothers. Brothers who met criteria for schizophrenia-spectrum disorders showed significantly reduced language performance compared with unaffected brothers and normal controls. Moreover, abnormal language performance was exhibited by significantly more probands and spectrum-disordered brothers than by the normal controls and the brothers without schizophrenia-spectrum disorders. Finally, language performance was not significantly different for 31 pairs of schizophrenic probands and their brothers. Impaired language comprehension appeared comparatively specific in this sample of relatives, as groups were not significantly different on measures of nonlinguistic concept formation (Wisconsin Card Sorting Test) and general intellectual functioning (WAIS-R Information and Block design). Results suggest that impaired language comprehension is associated with familial vulnerability to schizophrenia, and that this disturbance may be most severe in relatives diagnosed with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Comparison of set-shifting ability in patients with chronic schizophrenia and frontal lobe damage.

Neuropsychological studies of patients with schizophrenia have consistently identified deficits on tests sensitive to frontal lobe function. One paradigm that has been widely used is that of attentional set-shifting using the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST). In the present study, patients with chronic schizophrenia and with frontal lobe lesions were assessed on a computerised set-shifting task that provides a componential analysis of the WCST by distinguishing between intra-dimensional and extra-dimensional set-shifting. Out of 51 patients with schizophrenia, those with high IQ (n =24) were compared with patients with lesions in prefrontal cortex (n = 22) and with normal control subjects (n= 18). These three groups were well matched for age, sex and National Adult Reading Test (NART) IQ. The schizophrenic group showed a significantly higher rate of attrition at the intra-dimensional shift stage of learning compared with the other two groups. At the extra-dimensional shift stage, both the schizophrenic and frontal lesioned groups showed greater attrition than controls. Further, patients with schizophrenia who were able to learn the intradimensional reversal stage required more trials and made significantly more errors at that stage than the other two groups. In comparison with high IQ patients with schizophrenia, those with low IQ performed at a lower level but showed a qualitatively similar pattern of performance, providing further evidence that the set-shifting deficits were not simply explained by any global intellectual decline. Patients with schizophrenia who dropped out at the extradimensional shift stage had higher negative symptom scores compared with patients dropping out at previous learning stages, while patients failing at the intra-dimensional shift stage had lower scores for bradyphrenia (slowness of thought). The results suggest that patients with chronic schizophrenia fail to 'learn set' and are impaired at both set-shifting and concept formation. The relevance of these findings to understanding the nature of prefrontal cortical deficits in chronic schizophrenia is discussed. The implication of these findings to the rehabilitation of these patients is considered.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Relative sparing of executive functions in the early phase of schizophrenia.

Findings about the impairment of executive functions in schizophrenia are not conclusive. The authors hypothesized that the severity of the impairments in the abilities that comprise EF might be different. Forty patients were assessed with a comprehensive battery that included four measures of executive functions and were compared with 60 healthy subjects. Set shifting and response inhibition showed no significant between-group differences. Mental flexibility and concept formation were significantly worse in patients, but the effect sizes were small. Some executive functions might be relatively spared, at least in the early phase of schizophrenia. Studies on individual executive functions may yield more replicable findings.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

The role of occupational lead exposure in the genesis of psychiatric and behavioral disturbances.

In a prospective study of lead neurotoxicity, exposed foundry workers and referents were evaluated using a comprehensive set of neurobehavioral tests. Other performance indexes were used including a questionnaire, physical examination, and nerve conduction testing. Results show increased rates of depression, confusion, anger, fatigue and tension among workers with blood levels over 40 mcg/dl. Other aspects of neurobehavioral function, including verbal concept formation, memory, and visual/motor performance were also impaired. In view of the large number of individuals exposed to lead in their work, specific inquiries should be made of individuals with affectual complaints to clarify the nature of their work and workplace exposure to lead.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1977

Tactile-perceptual functioning as a factor in general psychological abilities.

This investigation was designed to study the influence of simple sensory perceptual ability (tactile perception) on various human abilities such as language acquisition, visuo-spatial problem solving, concept formation, motor skills, memory, and learning. Children with documented evidence of impaired brain functions (seizure disorder and corresponding EEG abnormality) and children without evidence or suspicion of neurological impairment were examined. The results suggest that tactile perceptual ability exerts a significant effect on the adequacy of a broad range of human abilities.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1983

Cognitive characteristics of the type A coronary-prone behavior pattern.

Recent findings indicate that Type As attend more to tasks defined as central, and less to tasks defined as peripheral, than do Type Bs. If this A-B difference in allocation of attention occurs naturally, as well as in response to experimental instructions, it would have implications for other phenomena, such as the process of creating a category from a series of perceptual events. It was reasoned that across a series of acquisition stimuli, Type As, compared to Type Bs, would be more responsive to the development of central tendencies in the frequency of appearance of the attributes that comprise the stimuli. That is, Type As should be more attentive to frequently occurring attributes (by virtue of their centrality in the evolving category definition) and less attentive to rarely occurring attributes. This difference in attention should lead to a difference in encoding. On a subsequent recognition-memory task, then, Type As should report with greater certainty than Type Bs that they had seen stimuli composed of frequently observed attributes and should report with greater certainty that they had not seen stimuli composed of rarely observed attributes. In a test of this reasoning, students classified as As and Bs completed a concept-formation and recognition-memory task under one of four levels of situational challenge. The predicted patterns occurred among subjects in whom moderate and high levels of challenge had been induced. The findings thus support the arguments that As and Bs process information differently and that this processing difference must be elicited by situational challenge.

Attention↗

PubMed1980

Conceptual development in learning-disabled and normal boys.

In two related studies, a pictorial sorting task served as the means of measuring conceptual development in LD and normal boys. The studies found no differences in the bases on which groups were formed (perceptible attributes, function, or nominal class membership) or in the manner in which groups were structured (thematically, in complexive groups or superordinate groups). Furthermore, parallel developmental trends were found in both LD and normal subjects groups. These findings are not consistent with early studies of concept formation in brain-damaged subjects, most of whom were retarded. Subjects in the present studies were selected on the basis of clinical diagnosis of LD and average IQ. The findings of the present studies suggest that generalizations about conceptual abilities of LD children of normal intelligence should not be based on early studies of the effects of brain damage.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1982

A comparison of the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Category Test.

An important clinical question is whether the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test and the Category Test, two tests of abstraction and concept formation, are interchangeable. This study attempted to answer this question by correlation results on the two tests and comparing their diagnostic accuracy in large groups of brain-damaged patients (N = 207) and normal controls (N = 150). It was concluded that these tests are not clinically interchangeable and that both can make important contributions to a comprehensive neuropsychological assessment.

Adult↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of menstrual phase and parental history of hypertension on cardiovascular response to cognitive challenge.

The effects of parental history of hypertension and menstrual phase on systolic and diastolic blood pressure (SBP, DBP) and heart rate (HR) responses to two frustrating cognitive tasks were examined in 47 normotensive, young adult women. Subjects with and without a parental history of hypertension were scheduled to be tested during either the follicular (days 7-11 of a 28-day cycle) or luteal (days 17-22) phase of the menstrual cycle. During the laboratory session, HR, SBP, DBP, and self-report of affective states were measured while subjects performed two cognitive tasks (mental arithmetic and concept formation). Results indicated that the magnitude of SBP responses to the two tasks was significantly greater in subjects tested during the follicular phase than in subjects tested in the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle. No effect of parental hypertension was observed on cardiovascular response measures, though offspring of hypertensive parents reported experiencing significantly less anger during the tasks than subjects with normotensive parents.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

The cognitive use of language by disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged children.

The cognitive use of language was evaluated among sixth-grade disadvantaged and nondisadvantaged children by eliciting spontaneous language samples in response to a series of 14 auditory stimuli, each depicting one or more human and/or mechanical sounds. -responses were analyzed according to the following dimensions: (a) units of thought: (b) concept formation; (c) parts of the sound responded to; (d) integration; (e) manner of verbalization; and (f) identification. Disadvantaged children manifested significantly fewer units of thought than their advantage counterparts. Several significant trends were noted for several of the remaining dimensions and were discussed. The general cognitive styles of the subject groups were related to the field-dependency-independency dichotomy described in the literature by Witkin and his associates.

Association↗

PubMed1989

[Disorders of language and cognition in schizophrenic patients and their effect on communication].

The subjects of this study are disturbances of concept formation in schizophrenics and the influence of that disorder on communication. The verbal coding and recognition of colours of a group of chronic schizophrenics and their normal controls were investigated. In describing the colours, the schizophrenics showed less variability, lower utterance lengths, and shorter reaction times for coding. These symptoms were interpreted as an indication that the schizophrenics don't realize the complexity of the task and differentiate less between the different descriptions (over inclusion). This higher stereotypy contradicts the suggested higher creativity of schizophrenics. No difference was found between the coding of schizophrenics and that of normals in communication with normals. However the schizophrenics showed a deficit of decoding. This was also interpreted as an indication of enlarged concepts within the meaning of the conception of "over inclusion".

Adult↗

PubMed1979

Influences of an analog of the neuropeptide ACTH 4--9 on mentally retarded adults.

In a double-blind procedure, 24 mentally retarded adults received 0 mg, 5mg, or 20 mg of an analog of the neuropeptide ACTH 4--9. Following treatment with peptide, the subjects were given the Trails B Test (from the Halstead-Reitan Neuropsychological Battery), the Peabody Picture Vocabulary test, the Benton Visual Retention Test, a concept-formation task, and a standard orienting sequence. The results of the behavioral tests suggested that attentional processes were enhanced in subjects treated with the peptide. The present study, in conjunction with another investigation using the neuropeptide ACTH/MSH 4--10 (Sandman, George, Walker, Nolan & Kastin, 1976), indicates that attentional deficits in mentally retarded adults, traditionally assumed to be irreversible, may be influenced by treatment with fragments of the neuropeptides ACTH and MSH.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Impairment in abstraction and set shifting in aged rhesus monkeys.

Understanding the nature of changes in cognition with aging has increased in importance as the number of individuals over the age of 65 years grows. To date, studies have demonstrated that age-related changes occur most extensively in the cognitive domains of memory and executive function. Whereas a large number of studies have been conducted about the effects of aging on memory, far less have explored the effects of aging on the so called "executive function" which include abilities essential for successful performance of higher level activities of daily living. As part of our ongoing effort to better characterize these changes, we assessed executive function in a non-human primate model of normal human aging using the Conceptual Set Shifting Task (CSST). This recently developed task assesses abstraction, concept formation and set shifting in the monkey in a way analogous to the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) in humans. Relative to young adult monkeys, aged monkeys evidenced significant difficulty in both acquisition and performance on this task, and moreover, demonstrated a high degree of perseverative responding. The pattern of performance displayed by the aged monkeys suggests an age-related decline in prefrontal cortex (PFC) functioning.

Aging↗