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PubMed1989

Sacral curvature and supine posture.

Sacral curvature (SC), represented by the angle between the first and the last sacral vertebrae, is a feature that differentiates the human pelvis from that of other animals. The sacral curvature was measured and studied in 14 cebids, 31 cercopithecids, 17 hylobatids, 85 pongids, 23 normal human children, 15 children with orthopedic handicaps, 49 normal adult human males, and 64 normal adult human females. Sacral curvature was minimal to nil in monkeys (mean 11.5 +/- 6 SD degrees), and moderate in apes (hylobatids, mean 16 +/- 10 SD degrees; pongids, mean 27.2 +/- 16 SD degrees). In human newborns SC is minimal, increasing progressively until adolescence, reaching a mean of 64.7 +/- 29 SD degrees in adult humans. This study investigates the different factors contributing to the formation of the sacral curvature. These factors include 1) the effect of erect posture, which tilts the upper part of the sacrum dorsally and the lower part of the sacrum ventrally, and 2) the influence of supine posture, which affects the development of the lower part of the sacrum. In addition to supine posture the levator ani, which is well developed in Homo sapiens, also affects the lower part of the sacrum and coccyx and influences its ventral orientation. Variation in SC can result from differences in onset and frequency of supine posture. This is the first time that supine posture has been shown to play a role in shaping the human pelvis, although it is as characteristic of H. sapiens as is erect posture.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

Effect of upright posture and physical exercise on endogenous neurohormonal systems in cirrhotic patients with sodium retention and normal supine plasma renin, aldosterone, and norepinephrine levels.

It is well known that sodium retention occurs in a significant proportion of patients with cirrhosis despite normal supine plasma levels of renin, aldosterone (ALDO), and norepinephrine (NE). The current study was performed to assess whether this subset of patients also present normal activity of the renin-aldosterone and sympathetic nervous systems during upright posture in sitting position and moderate physical exercise. Nine healthy controls, 14 patients with compensated cirrhosis and 10 patients with cirrhosis, ascites, sodium retention, and normal supine plasma renin activity (PRA) and ALDO and NE concentration were sequentially studied after 60 minutes in supine rest, 30 minutes in sitting position, and 30 minutes of cycloergometric exercise (3-METs). Sitting position and exercise were associated with similar stimulation of the renin-aldosterone and sympathetic nervous systems in the three groups of subjects. Consequently, cirrhotic patients with ascites showed values of PRA and plasma concentration of ALDO and NE similar to healthy subjects and patients with compensated cirrhosis during supine rest (renin: 1.4 +/- 0.3, 0.8 +/- 0.2, and 0.8 +/- 0.3 ng/mL; aldosterone: 24.3 +/- 4.7, 20.2 +/- 3.9 and 21.4 +/- 3.4 ng/dL; norepinephrine: 252 +/- 23, 250 +/- 16, and 255 +/- 23 pg/mL), sitting position (renin: 2.1 +/- 0.5, 1.1 +/- 0.3, and 1.6 +/- 0.4; aldosterone: 32.2 +/- 7.3, 23.7 +/- 5.3, and 26.2 +/- 4.5; norepinephrine: 356 +/- 38, 401 +/- 63, and 420 +/- 35), and exercise (renin: 2.9 +/- 0.8, 1.6 +/- 0.4, and 2.2 +/- 0.5; aldosterone: 43 +/- 6.4, 34.9 +/- 8.5, and 38.2 +/- 5.3; norepinephrine: 481 +/- 35, 499 +/- 54, and 534 +/- 48).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aldosterone↗
PubMed1991

Kinetics of ventilation and gas exchange during supine and upright cycle exercise.

The dynamics of ventilation (VE), oxygen uptake (VO2), carbon dioxide output (VCO2), and heart rate (fc) were studied in 12 healthy young men during upright and supine exercise. Responses to maximal and to two different types of submaximal exercise tests were contrasted. During incremental exercise to exhaustion, the maximal work rate, VO2max, VEmax, fc,max, and ventilatory threshold were all significantly reduced in supine compared to upright exercise (P less than 0.01-0.001). Following step increases or decreases in work rate between 25 W and 105 W, both VO2 and VCO2 responded more slowly in supine than upright exercise. Dynamics were also studied in two different pseudorandom binary-sequence (PRBS) exercise tests, with the work rate varying between 25 W and 105 W with either 5-s or 30-s durations of each PRBS unit. In both of these tests, there were no differences caused by body position in the amplitude or phase shifts obtained from Fourier analysis for any observed variable. These data show that the body position alters the dynamic response to the more traditional step increase in work rate, but not during PRBS exercise. It is speculated that the elevation of cardiac output observed with supine exercise in combination with the continuously varying work-rate pattern of the PRBS exercise allowed adequate, perhaps near steady-state, perfusion of the working muscles in these tests, whereas at the onset of a step increase in work rate, greater demands were placed on the mechanisms of blood flow redistribution.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Supine approach to the sciatic nerve in the popliteal fossa.

PURPOSE: Sciatic nerve block in the popliteal fossa (popliteal nerve block, PNB) is an anaesthetic technique well-suited for operations below the knee. However, difficulty with positioning the patient in the prone position often precludes the classical, posterior approach to the block. In this report, an alternative approach to PNB that can easily be performed with a patient in the supine position is described. CLINICAL FEATURES: Three patients in whom the clinical circumstances precluded the use of the classical approach to PNB are described. In each case, PNB was performed using the alternative, supine approach. With a patient in the supine position, the leg is flexed at both the hip and knee, and supported by an assistant. After the anatomical landmarks of the popliteal fossa are identified, an insulated needle attached to a peripheral nerve stimulator is inserted 7 cm above the popliteal crease, 1 cm laterally to the midline and directed 45 degrees cephalad. Upon obtaining either dorsal or plantar flexion of the foot at the output current of 0.5 mAmp or less. 30-40 ml of local anaesthetic solution are injected. CONCLUSION: The supine approach to PNB allows the use of the block in patients that cannot be positioned in the prone position. Flexion of the leg at the knee greatly facilitates identification of the anatomical landmarks. When combined with a block of the femoral or saphenous nerve, this technique provides excellent anaesthesia for patients undergoing foot and ankle surgery.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Cross-spectral analysis of cardiovascular variables in supine diabetic patients.

Cardiovascular autonomic neuropathy in diabetes is associated with a high risk of mortality, which makes its early identification clinically important. An easy method for identification of subjects with autonomic dysfunction would be of clinical benefit. We evaluated the autonomic function in 28 diabetic patients and 21 control subjects recording 12 min time series of heart period (RR) and systolic arterial pressure (SAP, Finapres) during supine rest and 60 degrees head-up tilt. The power of the high (respiratory) and low (LF approximately 0.1 Hz) frequency oscillations was quantified by spectral analysis. The central frequency of the LF oscillations (LF_freq), phase shift, and the transfer function gain between RR interval and SAP fluctuations were provided by cross-spectral analysis, and measured at the point of maximal coherence. In the supine position 15 patients (LF-) displayed atypical LF variability with the LF_freq being shifted towards lower frequencies (about 0.06 Hz). They also showed larger phase angle, lower values or even absence of coherence and smaller transfer function gain between RR and SAP fluctuations. 13 patients (LF+) and the controls showed the LF_freq around 0.1 Hz, higher coherence and transfer function gain values. The orthostatic maneuver induced the expected changes in the spectral parameters (increase in the LF components of both RR and SAP and decrease in the HF variability of RR) into the LF+ patients and all the control subjects and abnormal response in the other 15 LF-patients. These findings indicate that diabetic subjects with uncharacteristic response to the orthostatic test present abnormal LF variability already in the supine position. Crossspectral parameters while supine may be used for the identification of these subjects.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

Hypotension induced by lateral decubitus or supine spinal anaesthesia in elderly with low ejection fraction undergone hip surgery.

OBJECTIVE: The aim of the study was to assess the effect of low ejection fraction (EF) on hypotension during lateral or supine position of spinal anaesthesia in patients older than 75 years old. METHODS: We analyzed 41 patients who had undergone hip surgery between August 2000 and October 2001 in the Aydin SSK State Hospital retrospectively. Patients older than 75 years of age and an EF less than 50% were selected and spinal anaesthesia was performed with hyperbaric bupivacaine 0.5%, lateral decubitus or supine position. The patients were divided into two groups: Group I (unilateral group, n = 23) and Group II (supine group, n = 18). History of hypertension, diabetes mellitus, and ASA status, preoperative value of EF and cardiac index, and intraoperative hypotension, bradycardia, ephedrine use, and maximal sensorial block levels were recorded. RESULTS: The age range of patients was between 75 and 103. The maximal sensorial block level was evaluated due to lower or higher than thoracic sixth segment for each patient in intraoperative period. The sensorial block level higher than thoracic sixth segment were determined 2 patient in Group I and 14 patients in Group II (p = 0.001). Hypotension was observed in five patients in Group I and 10 patients in Group II (p = 0.015). In Group I, the number of ephedrine used patient was lower than Group II (p = 0.015). CONCLUSIONS: Elderly patients with low EF were more likely to predispose to higher sensorial block level and hypotension was more common during spinal anaesthesia with supine position compared to lateral decubitus position.

Aged↗
PubMed2003

Supine-dependent changes in upper airway size in awake obstructive sleep apnea patients.

The purpose of this study was to define the changes in upper airway size in response to a body position change from upright to supine. A total of 15 male Caucasian obstructive sleep apnea (OSA) patients with a mean apnea hypopnea index of 31.0 +/- 13.9/hr were recruited for this study. A set of upright and supine cephalograms was traced and digitized for each patient. The most constricted site in the upright position was located in the velopharynx. When the body position was changed from upright to supine, a significant reduction in the anteroposterior dimension was observed only at the level of the velopharynx (p < 0.05). Sagittal cross-sectional areas of the velopharynx and the oropharynx significantly decreased (p < 0.05), but the soft palate area increased (p < 0.05). We conclude that the velopharynx is not only the narrowest site in both upright and supine body positions but also the most changeable site in response to an alteration in body position during wakefulness. Backward displacement of the soft palate with a change in shape may reflect less functional compensation in the velopharynx than that in the oropharynx and the hypopharynx and partly explain why upper airway occlusion occurs primarily in the velopharynx in OSA patients.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Respiratory changes in abdominal configuration in supine dogs.

In an attempt to understand the respiratory changes in abdominal muscle length in supine dogs (Ninane et al., 1988), we have recorded the electromyographic (EMG) activity of the transversus abdominis, external oblique, and rectus abdominis in eight supine, lightly anesthetized animals, and we have measured the respiratory changes in anteroposterior (AP) and transverse (T) diameters of the abdomen. Five animals had phasic expiratory EMG activity in the transversus during room air breathing, while only two animals had expiratory activity in the external oblique; no animal had phasic expiratory activity in the rectus. Activation of the transversus during expiration was invariably associated with a decrease in the abdominal T diameter and a rise in gastric pressure. In contrast, the abdominal AP diameter tended to increase. These alterations in abdominal configuration remained unchanged after denervation of the triangularis sterni, but decreased in magnitude when activation of the transversus was reduced by supplemental anesthesia. Conversely, these alterations in abdominal configuration increased in magnitude when expiratory activation of the transversus was increased by hyperoxic hypercapnia. These observations indicate that in supine dogs: (1) Expiratory contraction of the transversus acts primarily to reduce the transverse diameter of the abdomen; (2) This reduction, in turn, promotes an increase in abdominal pressure which results secondarily in an outward motion of the ventral abdominal wall; and (3) The latter may explain why the rectus abdominis, although electrically silent, shortens during expiration below its in situ relaxation length. The present observations also establish that in supine dogs breathing at rest, the abdomen does not move with a single degree of freedom.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1990

Office blood pressures in supine, sitting, and standing positions: correlation with ambulatory blood pressures.

The variability of casual (office) blood pressure according to position at the time of measurement was investigated in 168 untreated patients with a history of mild to moderate essential hypertension. Two measurements were made in the supine, sitting, and standing positions on each of 2 consecutive days, and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was performed. The mean supine, sitting, and standing blood pressures were 146 +/- 15/91 +/- 7, 144 +/- 15/96 +/- 8, and 149 +/- 17/103 +/- 7 mm Hg, respectively. Diastolic blood pressures were significantly different from each other (P less than 0.0001). Supine and sitting systolic blood pressures were not different, but they were different from standing blood pressure (P less than 0.0001). The mean of all three positions (overall blood pressure) was 146 +/- 15/96 +/- 7 mm Hg. Supine, sitting, standing, and overall diastolic blood pressure means were 90 mm Hg or more in 88, 133, 164, and 133 patients, respectively. The mean awake ambulatory and 24-hour ambulatory blood pressures were 143 +/- 16/95 +/- 7 and 138 +/- 16/92 +/- 8 mm Hg, respectively, and diastolic blood pressures were 90 mm Hg or more in 121 and 88 patients, respectively. The correlation of office blood pressure with ambulatory blood pressure varied according to office position and was 0.76 to 0.82 (P less than 0.0001) for systolic blood pressure and 0.60 to 0.69 (P less than 0.0001) for diastolic blood pressure.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed2004

The supine hip extensor manual muscle test: a reliability and validity study.

OBJECTIVES: To define the relative hip extensor muscle strengths values identified by the 4 grades obtained with a supine manual muscle test (MMT) and to compare these values with those indicated by the traditional prone test. DESIGN: Comparison of 4 manual supine strength grades with isometric hip extension joint torque; kappa statistic-determined interrater reliability, and analyses of variance identified between grade differences in torque. SETTING: Pathokinesiology laboratory. PARTICIPANTS: Adult volunteers recruited from local community and outpatient clinics. Reliability testing: 16 adults with postpolio (31 limbs). Validity testing (2 groups): 18 subjects without pathology (18 limbs), and 26 people with clinical signs of hip extensor weakness (51 limbs). INTERVENTIONS: Not applicable. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Supine hip extensor manual muscle grade and isometric hip extension torque. RESULTS: Reliability testing showed excellent agreement (82%). Subjects with pathology had significant differences in mean torque (P<.01) for the assigned grade 5 (176 Nm), grade 4 (103 Nm), grade 3 (67 Nm), and grade 2 (19 Nm). Healthy adults showed significant differences between grade 5 (212 Nm) and grade 4 (120 Nm) in mean torque (P<.05). CONCLUSIONS: The supine MMT is a reliable and valid method with which to assess hip extension strength.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2004

Kinematics of the ulna during pronation and supination in a cadaver study: implications for elbow arthroplasty.

OBJECTIVE: Aim of this study was to exactly describe and quantify kinematics of the ulna during pro- and supination. DESIGN: Biomechanical study in fresh frozen cadavers. BACKGROUND: A previous MRI study revealed a varus/valgus motion of the ulna averaging 7.1 degrees during pro-/supination. Axial rotation, however, could not be quantified. METHODS: Sixteen arms were examined in a new apparatus that fixed the humerus on a template and allowed forearm rotation. Motion of a Kirschner wire placed in the ulna was recorded in steps of 30 degrees by two perpendicularly arranged charge coupled device cameras during pro- and supination. RESULTS: From supination to pronation the ulna showed a semi-lunar evasive motion in the coronal and transverse plane with an initial varus shift, then a dorsal and finally a valgus shift. Motion in the coronal plane averaged 14.14 degrees (SD 4.78). Valgus angles of the ulna in 30 degrees, 60 degrees and 90 degrees pronation were significant (P<0.05) to each other and the neutral position. Varus angles of the ulna in 30 degrees, 60 degrees and 90 degrees supination (P<0.01) were significant to each other and the neutral position.A maximum ulnar axial pronation rotation of 3.2 degrees (SD 2 degrees ) was noted. Axial rotation angles of 90 degrees and 60 degrees of pronation were significant to each other and to the neutral position (P<0.05), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: To prevent increased stress on the bone-cement interface in elbow arthroplasty, a mean axial rotation of at least 3.2 degrees should be possible.

Arthroplasty, Replacement↗
PubMed2005

What is the risk of nocturnal supine enteral nutrition?

UNLABELLED: One complication of enteral nutrition (EN) is gastro-esophageal reflux disease. Semi-recumbent position is advised because posture influence reflux in critically ill patients. No data is available in stable patients. AIM: To study influence of position on reflux during nocturnal nutrition by percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy in stable patients. METHODS: Prospective cross-over study. Reflux was measured by 48 h-pH-metry, in supine and semi-recumbent position. The end point was % time spent under pH 4. For analysis, 2 subgroups were identified (refluxers and non-refluxers). A total of 16 patients (65 year+/-13) were included, most had neurological diseases. RESULTS: There was no increase of reflux probability in any position in all patients (% time spent under pH 4: supine vs. semi-recumbent: 4.4+/-7.7 vs. 3.5+/-7.0 NS). In non-refluxers, supine position did not increase % time under pH 4 (0.1+/-0.12 vs. 0.3+/-0.6, NS), and did not modify other parameters (number of reflux 0 +/-0.9 vs. 7 +/-19 NS, duration of the longest reflux (min) 1.1+/-1.7 vs. 1+/-1.7 NS). In refluxers, supine position did not worsen pre-existent reflux (% time under pH 4: 11.7+/-8.7 vs. 8.9+/-9.7 NS, number of reflux 119+/-88 vs. 91+/-89 NS, duration of the longest reflux (min) 19+/-19 vs. 24+/-21 NS). CONCLUSION: Our data suggest that position does not influence reflux in stable patients with EN.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Hemodynamic, autonomic and neurohormonal behaviour of familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy and neurally mediated syncope patients during supine and orthostatic stress.

Orthostatic intolerance (OI) syndromes are frequent and share symptoms like dizziness and orthostatic syncope. Their pathophysiology however seems to be different. The aim of our work was to evaluate autonomic and hemodynamic behaviour in patients with familial amyloidotic polyneuropathy and neurally mediated syncope in supine position and after acute orthostatic passive stress. We studied 12 patients with autonomic failure (group A), 12 patients with neurally mediated syncope (group B) and 16 aged matched normal controls (group C), in supine position and during the first 10 min of head-up tilt test (HUTT). Beat-by-beat blood pressure and heart rate were continuously monitored and digitised at 500 Hz. The baroreceptor alfa-index gain (vagal reflex-BRG), high frequency of RR variability (HFRR, vagal tonus) and low frequency of systolic arterial pressure variability (LFSAP, sympathetic tone) were calculated. Catecholamines, plasma brain (BNP) and atrial natriuretic (ANP) peptides were also measured. Hemodynamic data were derived and calculated by the non-invasive modelflow method. During supine position, cardiac output (CO) and stroke volume (SV) were similar in all groups. Mean arterial pressure (MAP) and BNP were higher in group A. Noradrenaline (NOR), BRG, HFRR and LFSAP were extremely low in this group. BRG and adrenaline (ADR) were higher in group B than in controls. Within the first 10 min of HUTT, there was a huge drop of CO, SV and MAP in group A, maintenance of very low levels of neurohormones and lack of autonomic function. HR, LFSAP and ADR had a higher rise at HUTT in group B compared with controls (p<0.01) but a significant decrease of BRG was noted (p<0.05). ANP or BNP did not change with tilt in any group. Different orthostatic intolerance syndromes may show important hormonal, autonomic and hemodynamic differences during supine rest and enhanced after passive orthostatism.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Corrective osteotomies of the radius and ulna for supination contracture of the pediatric and adolescent forearm secondary to neurologic injury.

PURPOSE: To present the authors' experience with internal fixation of the radius and ulna as a surgical option for correction of supination contracture of the forearm. METHODS: Twelve patients (13 limbs) had an osteotomy of the radius and ulna for a supination deformity secondary to a residual brachial plexus or spinal cord injury. Surgery consisted of proximal ulna and distal radius osteotomies combined with plate fixation. RESULTS: The average age of the patients at the time of surgery was 11 years. Five limbs had fixed supination deformities and 8 limbs lacked pronation beyond neutral. The average preoperative supination deformity (either fixed or measured at midarc) was 76 degrees. The average intraoperative correction was 86 degrees. The average follow-up period was 16 months. The average midrange resting position maintained at final follow-up evaluation was 2 degrees of pronation. All limbs ultimately obtained radiographic and clinical union of the osteotomy sites. Complications included 6 plate fractures; however, only 1 patient required revision internal fixation. CONCLUSIONS: The combination of a proximal ulna and distal radius osteotomy with internal fixation can provide excellent correction, but the implant must be strong enough to hold the osteotomies rigidly in the corrected position during the time needed for union. TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, Level IV.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Severe intraoperative air embolism during convexity meningioma surgery in the supine position. Case report.

BACKGROUND: Acute venous air embolism (AE) is a well-known intraoperative complication of neurosurgical procedures, especially during surgical procedures performed in the sitting position, but it is a rare complication in the supine position. A case of a patient who developed an AE during a supratentorial craniotomy in the supine position is presented and the literature is reviewed. CASE DESCRIPTION: A 45-year-old man had a large left frontal convexity meningioma. He was operated upon and, during craniotomy in the supine position, suffered a massive episode of air embolism with severe respiratory and hemodynamic changes. The AE episode occurred while we were cutting the bone for the craniotomy before turning the bone flap. Because the patient was bleeding profusely, the bone flap was quickly removed to achieve hemostasis. Aspiration of irrigant into the cut bone surfaces through several venous diploic channels in the bone edges was observed. The procedure was terminated when hemostasis was achieved. The meningioma was successfully removed in a second operation. CONCLUSION: We think that our case should serve to warn the neurosurgical community about the risk of AE in supratentorial procedures in the supine or semisitting positions when preoperative radiological imaging studies show the presence of important venous channels in relation to the site of the tumor.

Craniotomy↗
PubMed2000

Changes in the excitability of the H-reflex in wrist flexors related to the prone or supine position of the forearm in man.

The effect of the forearm position, prone vs. supine, on the excitability of the H-reflex in flexor carpi radialis (FCR) muscle was tested in nine adult volunteers by comparing the recruitment profiles of the H and M waves. The H-reflex size, normalized to the maximal M response, was lower when the forearm was supine than when it was prone, with an average reduction of about 50% over most of the H-recruitment curve. In three wrist positions, intermediate between prone and supine, the amount of reflex attenuation was related to the prono-supination angle. Control experiments excluded that the changes in the H reflex excitability were due to displacements of the stimulating or recording electrodes.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

A motion of forearm supination with maintenance of elbow flexion produced by electrical stimulation to two elbow flexors in humans.

Motions of the forearm induced by electrical stimulation to two elbow flexors (brachioradialis: BR, biceps brachii: BB) were examined in five healthy human subjects. Stainless steel wire electrodes were implanted percutaneously into each motor point of the muscles. The muscles were stimulated separately with a computer-controlled multi-channel stimulator. The motions were taken with a digital video system. Angular changes of the motions in elbow flexion/extension and forearm pronation/supination were measured. Electromyograms (EMG) of BR, BB, and the triceps brachii (TB) were recorded. Electrical stimulation to BR induced a motion of flexion and that to BB motions of flexion and supination. The stimulation to BR with an adequate intensity provided holding of flexion with the prone forearm in all the subjects. In this situation, additional stimulation to BB resulted in motions of flexion and supination. However, the additional stimulation accompanied with a decrease of the stimulation intensity for BR provided a motion of supination with maintenance of the flexion in all the subjects. Since during the stimulation BR, BB, and TB showed no voluntary contraction in EMG, it is suggested that modulation of contraction between BR and BB by the stimulation can produce force in supination with keeping constant force in flexion to support the weight below the elbow.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Comparison of measurement accuracy between two wrist goniometer systems during pronation and supination.

Pronation and supination have been shown to affect wrist goniometer measurement accuracy. The purpose of this study was to compare differences in measurement accuracy between a commonly used biaxial, single transducer wrist goniometer (System A) and a biaxial, two-transducer wrist goniometer (System B) over a wide range of pronation and supination (P/S) positions. Eight subjects moved their wrist between -40 and 40 degrees of flexion/extension (F/E) and -10 and 20 degrees of radial/ulnar (R/U) deviation in four different P/S positions: 90 degrees pronation; 45 degrees pronation; 0 degrees neutral and 45 degrees supination. System A was prone to more R/U crosstalk than System B and the amount of crosstalk was dependent on the P/S position. F/E crosstalk was present with both goniometer systems and was also shown to be dependent on P/S. When moving from pronation to supination, both systems experienced a similar extension offset error; however R/U offset errors were roughly equal in magnitude but opposite in direction. The calibration position will affect wrist angle measurements and the magnitude and direction of measurement errors. To minimize offset errors, the goniometer systems should be calibrated in the P/S posture most likely to be encountered during measurement. Differences in goniometer design and application accounted for the performance differences.

Adult↗