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PubMed1998

Priming relational schemas: effects of contextually activated and chronically accessible interpersonal expectations on responses to a stressful event.

The authors used a relational schemas approach to test the effects of interpersonal expectations on responses to a stressful event. In Study 1, a subliminal priming technique was used to demonstrate the causal influence of experimentally activated interpersonal expectations on affect, support seeking, and coping responses to a hypothetical unplanned pregnancy. Activation of positive interpersonal expectations increased reports of seeking emotional support and decreased the use of self-denigrating coping. Activation of negative interpersonal expectations decreased reports of positive affect and tended to impede growth-oriented coping. Chronically accessible interpersonal expectations, assessed by an attachment questionnaire, were also associated with affect, seeking of support, and coping. Study 2 undermined the possibility that the experimental findings obtained with this priming procedure resulted from a mood manipulation.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

Stress and accessibility of proximity-related thoughts: exploring the normative and intraindividual components of attachment theory.

Three studies examine the effects of stress on the accessibility of proximity-related thoughts. In all the studies, participants reported on their attachment style, and the accessibility of proximity themes and worries in a lexical decision task was assessed upon the priming of a stress or neutral word. In Study 2, the primed stress word was semantically related to attachment themes. In Study 3, lexical decisions were made under low or high cognitive load conditions. Overall, the priming of a stress word led to increased accessibility of proximity themes, regardless of attachment style. Anxious-ambivalent people also showed high accessibility to proximity themes and worries in both neutral and stress contexts. In most conditions, avoidant persons' reactions were similar to those of secure persons. However, they showed no accessibility to proximity worries even after the priming of a semantically related word and reacted with high accessibility to these worries upon the addition of cognitive load.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The affective component of the secure base schema: affective priming with representations of attachment security.

Using an affective priming procedure (S. T. Murphy & R. B. Zajonc, 1993), 7 studies examined the effects of the contextual activation of representations of attachment security (secure base schema) on the evaluation of neutral stimuli under either neutral or stressful contexts. In all the studies, participants also reported on their attachment style. Results indicated that the subliminal priming of secure base representations led to more positive affective reactions to neutral stimuli than did the subliminal priming of neutral or no pictures under both neutral and stressful contexts. Although the subliminal priming of positively valued, attachment-unrelated representations heightened positive evaluations under neutral contexts, it failed to elicit positive affect under stressful contexts. The results also revealed interesting effects of attachment style. The discussion focuses on the affective component of the secure base schema.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

The nonconsciousness of self-consciousness.

Five studies demonstrated that private self-consciousness is associated with nonconscious, automatic behaviors. In 2 studies, high but not low self-conscious individuals walked more slowly following exposure to an implicit elderly prime. In a 3rd study, high but not low self-conscious individuals showed improved performance following exposure to a subliminal success prime relative to a subliminal failure prime. In a 4th study, subliminal exposure to an angry prime was shown to increase blood pressure relative to a relax prime. In a final study, the latter effect was shown to be true only for high self-conscious individuals and only for subliminal presentations. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for understanding a variety of effects associated with self-consciousness and self-awareness.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Recognition and lexical decision without detection: unconscious perception?

Stimulus detection and concurrent measures of stimulus recognition were compared to establish whether perception occurs in the absence of detection. The target stimuli were familiar words (Experiments 1 and 2), nonwords (Experiment 3), or both words and nonwords (Experiment 4). On each trial, either a stimulus or a blank field was presented. Ss first decided whether a stimulus had been presented and then made either a forced-choice recognition decision (Experiments 1, 2, and 3) or a lexical decision (Experiment 4). Both words and nonwords were recognized and discriminated following correct detections (i.e., hits). However, in the absence of stimulus detection (i.e., misses), only words were recognized or discriminated. These qualitatively different patterns of results following hits and misses for words and nonwords suggest that stimulus detection may provide an adequate measure of conscious awareness.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Threshold variability in subliminal perception experiments: fixed threshold estimates reduce power to detect subliminal effects.

In studies of subliminal perception, a threshold for awareness is usually estimated for each S (e.g., the stimulus duration that yields chance discrimination performance). This article shows that if the S's true threshold varies randomly from trial to trial, estimation of a fixed threshold has important consequences. Specifically, the estimated threshold approaches the minimum of the distribution of true thresholds, and the power of an experiment to detect subliminal perception is reduced. Because there is much evidence that true thresholds vary across trials, threshold variability may have seriously weakened previous experiments that tested for subliminal perception. Fortunately, it is possible to estimate the maximum power loss resulting from threshold variability and therefore to design an experiment with acceptable power even in the presence of variability.

Arousal↗
PubMed1992

Musical duplex perception: perception of figurally good chords with subliminal distinguishing tones.

In a variant of duplex perception with speech, phoneme perception is maintained when distinguishing components are presented below intensities required for separate detection, forming the basis for the claim that a phonetic module takes precedence over nonspeech processing. This finding is replicated with music chords (C major and minor) created by mixing a piano fifth with a sinusoidal distinguishing tone (E or E flat). Individual threshold intensities for detecting E or E flat in the context of the fixed piano tones are established. Chord discrimination thresholds defined by distinguishing tone intensity were determined. Experiment 2 verified masked detection thresholds and subliminal chord identification for experienced musicians. Accurate chord perception was maintained at distinguishing tone intensities nearly 20 dB below the threshold for separate detection. Speech and music findings are argued to demonstrate general perceptual principles.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Measurement error in subliminal perception experiments: simulation analyses of two regression methods.

A. G. Greenwald, M. R. Klinger, and E. S. Schuh (1995) investigated subliminal perception using a regression-based test for a dissociation between direct and indirect measures of perceptual ability. Direct and indirect measures were obtained for each observer, and a regression analysis was used to predict the amount of indirect perception at the point where the direct measure showed zero sensitivity. A significant positive intercept, obtained with both standard regression and a modified regression developed by K. C. Klauer, S. C. Draine, and A. G. Greenwald (1998), was used to argue for the key dissociation. When the assumptions of these methods are not met, however, simulations indicate that significant positive intercepts can often be obtained even if there is no dissociation. Moreover, the assumptions are theoretically implausible and inconsistent with some aspects of the results. Thus, the significant positive intercept is not strong evidence of the key dissociation.

Computer Simulation↗
PubMed1998

On demonstrating unconscious perception: comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998)

S. C. Draine and A. G. Greenwald (1998) have described a methodology based on regression analysis for demonstrating unconscious perception. They have suggested that their methodology represents a major improvement over existing methodologies. An analysis of their methodology reveals that it is closely related to the classic dissociation paradigm. As such, interpretation of their results is compromised by the same issues concerning the measurement of awareness that have plagued all previous attempts to use the dissociation paradigm to demonstrate unconscious perception in the complete absence of conscious perception.

Cognition↗
PubMed1998

Correcting for measurement error in detecting unconscious cognition: comment on Draine and Greenwald (1998)

A. G. Greenwald, M. R. Klinger, and E. S. Schuh (1995) have proposed a regression method for detecting unconscious cognition in experiments that obtain measures of indirect and direct effects of stimuli with suspected unconscious effects. Their indirect-on-direct-measure regression approach can produce misleading evidence for indirect effects in the absence of direct effects when the direct-effect measure has typical measurement error. This article describes an errors-in-variables variant of the regression method that corrects for error in the direct-effect measure. Applied to the uses of the regression method by S. C. Draine and A. G. Greenwald (1998) in this issue, the errors-in-variables method affirms substantial evidence for indirect effects in the absence of direct effects.

Cognition↗
PubMed1998

Distinguishing unconscious from conscious cognition--reasonable assumptions and replicable findings: reply to Merikle and Reingold (1998) and Dosher (1998)

S. C. Draine and A. G. Greenwald (1998) demonstrated replicable unconscious semantic priming by combining a response window procedure, which increases priming effects by requiring rapid responding, and a regression analysis in which the regression intercept is a marker for unconscious cognition. The commentaries by B. A. Dosher (1998) and by P. M. Merikle and E. M. Reingold (1998) raise two questions about conclusions based on these methods: (a) Did Draine and Greenwald (1998) demonstrate an indirect effect (subliminal priming) in the absence of a direct effect (i.e., visibility of the subliminal priming words)? and (b) Did Draine and Greenwald (1998) demonstrate dissociation of conscious from unconscious cognition? The first question has reassuring responses that are reviewed here. The second question is answered by pointing out that although Draine and Greenwald (1998) did not claim to have established such dissociation, they provided data that advance the plausibility of that conclusion.

Cognition↗
PubMed1992

Subliminal self-help audiotapes: a search for placebo effects.

Subliminal self-help audiotapes to aid weight loss were evaluated to determine if their apparent effectiveness is due to a placebo effect. All subjects were female students or staff who were both overweight and believed in the possible effectiveness of subliminal audiotapes. Three different groups of subjects were tested: One group listened to subliminal audiotapes purchased directly from a manufacturer, the 2nd group listened to comparable placebo tapes, and the 3rd group did not listen to any tapes at all. Each subject in each group was weighed once each week for 5 weeks. All 3 groups of subjects lost weight, and the average amount of weight lost by each group was approximately equivalent. These results provide no evidence that regular use of subliminal audiotapes leads to a placebo effect. Rather, the results suggest that regular use of subliminal audiotapes may simply make subjects more conscious of their weight.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Can self-reported encoding strategy and recognition skill be diagnostic of performance in eyewitness identifications?

The relationship between 3 witness factors and identification accuracy, as well as calibration and diagnosticity of confidence, was investigated. A total of 384 participants in an eyewitness experiment rated their facial recognition skill, general memory skill, and self-reported encoding strategy on a questionnaire presented after the photo-confrontation. Participants who rated themselves to be good face recognizers showed a slightly higher overall accuracy with a more diagnostic confidence-accuracy relation. Participants who reported that they relied on a holistic encoding strategy were associated with more accurate identifications and a stronger confidence-accuracy relation than those who reported an analytic encoding strategy. Degree of self-reported general memory skill was not diagnostic of identification performance.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The motivational looking glass: how significant others implicitly affect goal appraisals.

Three studies manipulate the accessibility of significant-other representations to explore how these representations may automatically influence how goals are construed and experienced. Study 1 finds that the perceived attainment expectations of a significant other automatically affect participants' own task-goal expectations and their subsequent task performance and persistence. Study 2 finds that the general perceived value that a significant other places in attaining a task goal automatically affects participants' own attainment value appraisals, their task persistence and performance, and the magnitude of their reaction to success and failure feedback. Finally, Study 3 demonstrates that the regulatory focus prescribed by a significant other may automatically affect participants' own regulatory focus with regards to a task goal, with consequences for their cheerfulness-dejection and relaxation-agitation responses to success and failure feedback. The implications for our understanding of social influence and self-regulation are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Being bad isn't always good: affective context moderates the attention bias toward negative information.

Research has demonstrated that people automatically devote more attention to negative information than to positive information. The authors conducted 3 experiments to test whether this bias is attenuated by a person's affective context. Specifically, the authors primed participants with positive and negative information using traditional (e.g., subliminal semantic priming) and nontraditional (e.g., social interactions) means and measured the amount of attention they allocated to positive and negative information. With both event-related brain potentials (Experiment 1) and the Stroop task (Experiments 2 and 3), results suggest that the attention bias to negative information is attenuated or eliminated when positive constructs are made accessible. The implications of this result for other biases to negative information and for the self-reinforcing nature of emotional disorders are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2007

Cancer and the threat of death: the cognitive dynamics of death-thought suppression and its impact on behavioral health intentions.

Five studies examined the cognitive association between thoughts of cancer and thoughts of death and their implication for screening intentions. Study 1 found that explicit contemplation of cancer did not increase death-thought accessibility. In support of the hypothesis that this reflects suppression of death-related thoughts, Study 2 found that individuals who thought about cancer exhibited elevated death-thought accessibility under high cognitive load, and Study 3 demonstrated that subliminal primes of the word cancer led to increased death-thought accessibility. Study 4 revealed lower levels of death-thought accessibility when perceived vulnerability to cancer was high, once again suggesting suppression of death-related thoughts in response to conscious threats associated with cancer. Study 5 extended the analysis by finding that after cancer salience, high cognitive load, which presumably disrupts suppression of the association between cancer and death, decreased cancer-related self-exam intentions. Theoretical and practical implications for understanding terror management, priming and suppression, and responses to cancer are discussed.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1990

Subliminally activated symbiotic fantasies: facts and artifacts.

A quantitative review of subliminal symbiotic activation research is presented. Ss viewed Mommy and I are one and other psychoanalytically relevant or neutral stimuli at subliminal exposure levels, and comparative effects on adaptive behavior were observed. The review procedure was one in which the results of a meta-analysis were corrected for statistical artifacts. Small but significant effects were revealed. All observed variance between studies is attributable to random sampling and measurement error. Future research designed to replicate basic experimental effects is deemed superfluous. Some implications for psychoanalytic theory, cognitive science, and subliminal perception research are discussed.

Fantasy↗
PubMed2006

Dissociating local and global levels of perceptuo-motor control in masked priming.

Masked prime stimuli presented near the threshold of conscious awareness affect responses to subsequent targets. The direction of these priming effects depends on the interval between masked prime and target. With short intervals, benefits for compatible trials (primes and targets mapped to the same response) and costs for incompatible trials are observed. This pattern reverses with longer intervals. We argue (a) that these effects reflect the initial activation and subsequent self-inhibition of the primed response, and the corresponding inhibition and subsequent disinhibition of the nonprimed response, and (b) that they are generated at dissociable local (within response channels) and global (between channels) levels of motor control. In two experiments, global-level priming effects were modulated by changing the number of response alternatives, whereas local-level effects remained unaffected. These experiments suggest that low-level motor control mechanisms can be successfully decomposed into separable subcomponents, operating at different levels within the motor system.

Adolescent↗