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PubMed2005

Self-efficacy and motivation to quit during participation in a smoking cessation program.

The associations between failure to quit and posttreatment self-efficacy and motivation were examined among 600 African American smokers enrolled in a randomized trial testing the efficacy of bupropion for smoking cessation. Participants also received brief motivational counseling and were followed for 6 months. Baseline levels of self-efficacy and motivation for all participants were high (8.2 and 8.5 on a 10-point scale, respectively). Longitudinal analyses indicated that smokers who failed to quit were less likely than quitters to report high self-efficacy and motivation from posttreatment to follow-up. However, examination of mean self-efficacy and motivation scores at posttreatment and follow-up revealed that smokers continued to sustain high self-efficacy and motivation. Mean self-efficacy and motivation scores differed by less than 1 point from baseline levels, even though the majority of participants failed to quit smoking. Results suggest that unsuccessful participation in a smoking cessation program does not meaningfully reduce smokers' self-efficacy and motivation to quit.

Adult↗

PubMed2005

Changes in athlete burnout and motivation over a 12-week league tournament.

INTRODUCTION: To date, empirical reports of an association between motivation and athlete burnout have been exclusively based on cross-sectional research. Conclusions regarding the nature of the relationship between motivation and burnout are limited because they do not provide longitudinal information. PURPOSE: To examine the relationship between burnout and motivation across a 12-wk league tournament (pretournament, midtournament, and end of tournament). METHOD: Data were collected on using the Athlete Burnout Questionnaire and Sport Motivation Scale from 102 adult professional male rugby players at three different times during a 12-wk league tournament. RESULTS: Linear mixed modeling was used to explore hypothesized relationships between individual key characteristics of burnout and factors/covariates across time. Within the models, amotivation, the least self-determined type of motivation, had a large positive association with key characteristics of burnout. Self-determined forms of motivation (i.e., intrinsic motivation) exhibited significant negative associations with burnout. Extrinsic motivation, proposed to exist between intrinsic and amotivation on the self-determination continuum, was negatively associated with sport devaluation and reduced accomplishment as well as positively associated with physical and emotional exhaustion. Other factors related to burnout within the analysis included time (pretournament, in tournament, and end of tournament), team membership, number of injuries, years of national domestic league experience, and win/loss history. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the results reflect the burnout experience may vary over time and support the potential utility of a self-determination theory explanation of burnout.

Adult↗

PubMed2002

Creating a scale to measure motivation to achieve academically: linking attitudes and behaviours using Rasch measurement.

BACKGROUND: Motivation to Achieve Academically has been used in many educational and other studies in many countries and the large majority has not used an interval level scale based on a good theoretical model in which the items are linked to behaviour. AIMS: One, to create an interval level, unidimensional scale of Motivation, with attitude items linked to behaviour items, based on a conceptual model of Motivation, involving Striving for Excellence (Standards, Goals, Tasks, Effort, Values and Ability), Desire to Learn (Interest, Learning from Others and Responsibility for Learning), and Rewards (Extrinsic, Intrinsic and Social). Two, to analyse its psychometric properties using the Extended Logistic Model of Rasch (Andrich, 1988a, 1988b; Rasch, 1980/1960). Three, to investigate the structure and meaning of the scale. SAMPLE: The convenience person sample was 239 first-year students selected for three special entry programmes at an Australian university. The stem-item sample was initially 45, reduced to 24, that fitted the measurement model to form a valid and reliable scale. METHOD: Based on recent literature, a conceptual model of Motivation was devised and items written in line with the model. Data were collected by self-report questionnaire and analysed with the computer program Rasch Unidimensional Measurement Models (RUMM) (Andrich, Lyne, Sheridan, & Luo, 1998). A scale was created in which the Motivation measures were calibrated on the same scale as the item 'difficulties'. RESULTS: Twenty-four Motivation items fitted the model and were 'easier' than their corresponding behaviour items, as conceptualised. They formed an excellent scale in which the proportion of observed variance considered true was 0.93. Items from all aspects of the Motivation model named in the aims above, except Ability and Extrinsic Rewards, fitted the measurement model. CONCLUSION: The Rasch model and the RUMM computing program were very useful in creating a unidimensional, interval level scale of Motivation to achieve academically, with good psychometric properties.

Achievement↗

PubMed2003

Changes in self-perceptions of competence and intrinsic motivation among elementary schoolchildren.

BACKGROUND: Children's perceived competence and intrinsic motivation are assumed to be very high at the outset of schooling. However, how they change and how they relate to each other and to academic achievement across early schooling years remain open to question. AIMS: This 3-year longitudinal study was aimed at examining the following questions. Do children's perceived competence and intrinsic motivation about reading and mathematics change across the first 3 years of schooling? Do their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation differ according to academic domains? Do their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation relate to their academic achievement in each academic domain? SAMPLE: A total of 115 elementary schoolchildren (63 boys and 52 girls) were examined in first grade (mean age = 84,5 months, SD =.67) and for the next 2 years. METHOD: Children responded to questionnaires about their perceived competence and intrinsic motivation in reading and mathematics. Year-end grades in these two subjects were used as a measure of performance. RESULTS: Changes in perceived competence and intrinsic motivation, and between-year intercorrelations, were observed to differ according to academic domains and gender. Intrinsic motivation did not make a significant contribution to academic achievement at either school grade or in any academic domain, whereas perceived competence was significantly related to achievement at each school grade in both reading and mathematics. CONCLUSIONS: Differences between boys and girls observed in this study were not linked to a specific domain and cannot be attributed to gender-role stereotypes. Girls appeared to be more precocious in differentiating their competence and intrinsic motivation according to academic domain, as well as in being able to process and integrate information about their ability from past performances in a domain to judge their competence in the same domain.

Child↗

PubMed2006

Developmental dynamics between mathematical performance, task motivation, and teachers' goals during the transition to primary school.

BACKGROUND: It has been suggested that children's learning motivation and interest in a particular subject play an important role in their school performance, particularly in mathematics. However, few cross-lagged longitudinal studies have been carried out to investigate the prospective relationships between academic achievement and task motivation. Moreover, the role that the classroom context plays in this development is largely unknown. AIMS: The aim of the study was to investigate the developmental dynamics of maths-related motivation and mathematical performance during children's transition to primary school. The role of teachers' pedagogical goals and classroom characteristics on this development was also investigated. SAMPLE: A total of 196 Finnish children were examined four times: (0) in October during their preschool year; (1) in October and (2) April during their first grade of primary school; and (3) in October during their second grade. METHOD: Children's mathematical performance was tested at each measurement point. Task motivation was examined at measurement points 2, 3, and 4 using the Task-value scale for children. First-grade teachers were interviewed in November about their pedagogical goals and classroom characteristics. RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: The results showed that children's mathematical performance and related task motivation formed a cumulative developmental cycle: a high level of maths performance at the beginning of the first grade increased subsequent task motivation towards mathematics, which further predicted a high level of maths performance at the beginning of the second grade. The level of maths-related task motivation increased in those classrooms where the teachers emphasized motivation or self-concept development as their most important pedagogical goal.

Child↗

PubMed2006

Future goal setting, task motivation and learning of minority and non-minority students in Dutch schools.

BACKGROUND: Cross-cultural research on minority school achievement yields mixed findings on the motivational impact of future goal setting for students from disadvantaged minority groups. Relevant and recent motivational research, integrating Future Time Perspective Theory with Self-Determination Theory, has not yet been validated among minority students. AIMS: To replicate across cultures the known motivational benefits of perceived instrumentality and internal regulation by distant future goals; to clarify when and how the future motivates minority students' educational performance. SAMPLE: Participants in this study were 279 minority students (100 of Turkish and 179 of Moroccan origin) and 229 native Dutch students in Dutch secondary schools. METHODS: Participants rated the importance of future goals, their perceptions of instrumentality, their task motivation and learning strategies. Dependent measures and their functional relations with future goal setting were simultaneously validated across minority and non-minority students, using structural equation modelling in multiple groups. RESULTS: As expected, Positive Perceived Instrumentality for the future increases task motivation and (indirectly) adaptive learning of both minority and non-minority students. But especially internally regulating future goals are strongly related to more task motivation and indirectly to more adaptive learning strategies. CONCLUSION: Our findings throw new light on the role of future goal setting in minority school careers: distant future goals enhance minority and non-minority students' motivation and learning, if students perceive positive instrumentality and if their schoolwork is internally regulated by future goals.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2001

Heavy drinking from the freshman year into early young adulthood: the roles of stress, tension-reduction drinking motives, gender and personality.

OBJECTIVE: This study investigated the relationship between stress (defined alternatively as negative life events and emotional distress) and heavy drinking across late adolescence and early young adulthood, as well as the roles of tension-reduction drinking motives and gender as moderators of that relationship. The role of personality variables (neuroticism, behavioral undercontrol and extraversion) as moderators also was explored. METHOD: The data were obtained from 485 individuals (255 women) participating in a five-wave longitudinal study that spanned 7 years. The effects on heavy drinking of stress (either negative life events or emotional distress), tension-reduction drinking motives, gender and personality were analyzed each year with hierarchical multiple regression. RESULTS: Stress (negative life events) was positively related to heavy drinking, but only for men with stronger tension-reduction drinking motives at Year 4 (age 21). The relationship between tension-reduction drinking motives and heavy drinking was positive, developmentally graded, and moderated by gender, after the freshman year, the role of tension-reduction drinking motives in heavy drinking became less important for women, relative to men, a trend that grew stronger after the college years. Behavioral undercontrol played a limited role in the relationship of gender and tension-reduction drinking motives to heavy drinking. CONCLUSIONS: The findings have implications for theories of stress-related and stress-motivated drinking. Such theories should consider developmental processes, particularly the transition to adult drinking status at age 21 and the roles of tension-reduction drinking motives, gender and behavioral undercontrol.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

The Sport Motivation Scale for Children: preliminary analysis in physical education classes.

This study was done to test the psychometric properties of the modified version of the Sport Motivation Scale adapted for children in physical education. Participants were elementary school students (N = 452, M(age) = 13.9 +/- 1.04) who responded to the Sport Motivation Scale for Children. The scale assesses three types of motivation at the contextual level, namely, Intrinsic Motivation, Extrinsic Motivation, and Amotivation. Results supported the construct validity (CFI = .95), and internal consistency of the scale (Cronbach alpha > .65). Correlations indicated Sport Motivation Scale for Children simplex pattern exhibiting higher correlations among adjacent subscales than subscales farther apart. The concurrent validity, examined through correlations with scores on the Physical Self-description Questionnaire was satisfactory. Sex differences were examined to assess the discriminant validity. Boys were more intrinsically motivated than girls. Overall, the scale seems a useful one for assessment of motivation in physical education.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2000

Examining the validity of the Academic Motivation Scale by comparing scale construction to self-determination theory.

This study examined the construct validity of the Academic Motivation Scale. Specifically, subscale correlations were examined to assess whether support for a continuum of self-determination would be provided. The three types of Intrinsic Motivation were significantly and positively correlated with each other .67, .62, and .58, while the three types of Extrinsic Motivation were significantly and positively intercorrelated .50, .49, and .45. The former subscales, however, correlated higher with Introjected Regulation than Identified Regulation, suggesting that Introjected Regulation may be indicative of more self-determined behavior than has previously been believed. Also, the Intrinsic Motivation To Accomplish subscale had a stronger relationship with two of the Extrinsic Motivation subscales, Identified Regulation and Introjected Regulation, than did the Extrinsic Motivation subscales with each other. This suggests that the differences between Extrinsic and Intrinsic Motivation are not as obvious as has been believed. Also, contrary to self-determination theory, Amotivation had a stronger negative correlation with Identified Regulation (r = -.31) than with any of the Intrinsic Motivation subscales (rs = -.27, -.19, and -.11).

Achievement↗

PubMed2004

Relations between big five traits and fundamental motives.

Relations were examined between configurations of Big Five Traits (Extraversion, Agreeableness, Conscientiousness, Neuroticism, Openness to Experience) and 16 fundamental motives (Social Contact, Curiosity, Honor, Power, Order, Idealism, Independence, Status, Vengeance, Romance, Family, Activity, Saving, Acceptance, Eating, Tranquility) in 138 university students (93 women, 45 men; M age= 20.3 yr., SD=4.5). Big Five traits were measured with the NEO-PI-R and motives were measured with the Reiss Profile of Fundamental Goals and Motivation Sensitivities. The traits were significantly related with all the motives (adjusted R2=.06 to .43) except Physical Activity. Four motives were related with only one trait and nine configurations of two or more traits were correlated with the remaining 11 motives. Total motive scores across all participants, an index of the strength of overall motivation, were positively correlated with Extraversion and Neuroticism and negatively with Agreeableness.

Adult↗

PubMed2006

Learning motivational interviewing: scripting a virtual patient.

OBJECTIVES: This article describes a written assignment for a first-year professional communication course to facilitate the understanding and mastery of motivational interviewing in dealing with patient ambivalence and resistance. The goal was to immerse students in how motivational interviewing differs from traditional biomedical counseling with regard to phrasing individual responses to the patient and managing the flow of interaction. METHODS: Students were required to write a script for a working prototype of the Auburn University Virtual Patient. The script had to specify the text for the virtual patient's comments, 2-5 possible responses for the student pharmacist to choose from, and multiple interactional paths representing motivational interviewing, biomedical counseling, and a mix of the 2. RESULTS: Student feedback and test results are reported. Qualitative analysis of written student feedback indicated that (1) the project took too much time because of the complexities of the computer procedures resulting from the Virtual Patient being a prototype, and (2) the computer procedures deflected attention from the critical thinking involved in writing the script. Quantitative item analysis of final examination results indicated that students scored an average one full-letter grade better on the questions about motivational interviewing than on the questions covering other topics. CONCLUSION: The scriptwriting assignment is a challenging exercise in assimilating the verbal skills necessary for using motivational interviewing in patient counseling. Many students exhibited greater interest in motivational interviewing, greater knowledge of why motivational interviewing is successful, greater facility with wording responses, and greater confidence in their ability to use motivational interviewing in the future. Because almost all students had negative reactions to the difficulty and time involved in making their scripts actually work with the virtual patient prototype, future assignments should delete this requirement.

Alabama↗

PubMed2003

How to motivate your problem people.

Managers who motivate with incentives and the power of their vision and passion succeed only in energizing employees who want to be motivated. So how do you motivate intractable employees--the ones who never do what you want and also take up all your time? According to Nigel Nicholson, you can't: Individuals must motivated themselves. Nicholson advocates a method that turns conventional approaches to motivation upside down. Instead of pushing solutions on problem employees, the manager should pull solutions out of them by creating circumstances in which the employees can channel their motivation toward achievable goals. That means addressing any obstacles-possibly even the manager's own demotivating style--that might be hindering the employees. The author's method demands that a manager take charge of a difficult situation and resolve it. An investment of time is required, but it will bring the manager to a resolution sooner than other means would. Using detailed examples, Nicholson walks the reader through his method, pointing out potential pitfalls along the way. First, the manager creates a rich picture of the problem person. Second, the manager exercises flexibility and reframes goals so that the employee can meet them. Third, in a carefully staged, face-to-face conversation, the manager meets with the problem employee on neutral ground. Whether a problem is solved or simply resolved, the payoffs from using this method extend beyond the specific employees who have been difficult to motivate. Besides increasing a manager's chances of motivation problem people, the method can inspire an entire team by signaling that the organization deals with difficult people rather than discarding them.

Employment↗

PubMed1984

Motivating pharmacy employees.

Concepts from theories of motivation are used to suggest methods for improving the motivational environment of hospital pharmacy departments. Motivation--the state of being stimulated to take action to achieve a goal or to satisfy a need--comes from within individuals, but hospital pharmacy managers can facilitate motivation by structuring the work environment so that it satisfies employees' needs. Concepts from several theories of motivation are discussed, including McGregor's theory X and theory Y assumptions, Maslow's hierarchy of needs theory, Herzberg's motivation hygiene theory, and Massey's value system theory. Concepts from the Japanese style of management that can be used to facilitate motivation, such as quality circles, also are described. The autocratic, participative, and laissez faire styles of leadership are discussed in the context of the motivation theories, and suggested applications of theoretical concepts to practice are presented.

Emotions↗

PubMed1994

[Systemic integration of dominating motivation].

The paper analyzes the investigations into the central architectonics of biological motivations, which have been performed by the P.K. Anokhin scientific school. Each biological motivation is postulated to be a result of specific integration of heterochemical mechanisms of biological motivations. The chemical plasticity of biological motivations is evidenced by the findings of the duplication of different neurotransmitters in cortical-subcortical interrelations, as well as the potentialities of the chemical rearrangement ("chemical compensation") of neurotransmitter mechanisms of biological motivations in case of bilateral failure of hypothalamic motivational centers of the hypothalamus. Some cerebral oligopeptides are found to be able to temporarily and selectively modify the pattern of motivational behavioral responses evoked by electric stimulation of various hypothalamic formations. It is concluded that the biological motivations are a result of the integrative performance of the whole brain wherein hypothalamic pacemakers play the leading but not final role.

Animals↗

PubMed1996

Motivation of general practitioners attending postgraduate education.

BACKGROUND: The 1990 Contract encouraged general practitioners to participate in continuing medical education by providing a financial incentive. AIM: The study was designed: to determine the motivation of general practitioners attending education events; and to compare motivation and reasons for attendance pre- and post-Contract at commercial and non-commercial meetings, and at the different educational categories of Disease Management (DM), Health Promotion (HP) and Service Management (SM). METHOD: Two structured questionnaires were used. The first was sent to all general practitioners in the West of Scotland and asked about motivation pre-1990 Contract and the second, post-Contract, looked at motivation and reasons for attending a course as part of post course assessment. This latter was part of a much larger study evaluating continuing medical education. RESULTS: A total of 1161 practitioners responded to questionnaire I and 552 general practitioners attended 27 randomly selected postgraduate meetings. Finance was a motivator in 3.8% pre-Contract, and this increased to 33.3% post-Contract and was the most commonly stated reason for attendance in 81.3%. Financial incentive had the biggest influence on those attending HP sessions (91.5%), then SM (87.2%) and finally DM (78.6% (chi 2 = 8.68; P < or = 0.013). It was also important to 73% attending drug-company-sponsored meetings compared with 83.7% going to non-commercial ones. Interest was a good motivator both pre- and post-Contract, but more so for DM than other categories and drug company as opposed to non-commercial meetings (chi 2 = 9.4; P < 0.002). Lack of knowledge became a less-important motivator post-Contract, and doctors felt least knowledgeable in SM (62.2%), as opposed to DM (57.9%) and HP (23.6%) (chi 2 = 38.8; P < 0.001, with each differing significantly from both others). Doctors found the topics provided by the pharmaceutical companies more interesting (chi 2 = 9.4; P < 0.002) and the hospitality provided more alluring than scheme meetings (chi 2 = 28.6; P < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Finance has a major effect on attendance at postgraduate meetings but may not be a good incentive for learning. Planning for education must take into account the different motivational factors for the different categories. Reasons for attending commercial meetings differ from non-commercial ones and these events should be closely monitored.

Education, Medical, Continuing↗

PubMed2004

Impulsiveness, locus of control, motivation and problem gambling.

A questionnaire consisting of demographic items, questions about gambling behavior, the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), a depression inventory, the Eysenck Impulsiveness Questionnaire, Levenson's Internality, Powerful Others and Chance Scales of locus of control and the Gambling Motivation Scale, was completed by a non-random sample of 147 New Zealand university students who gambled for money, median age 24 years. Approximately 17 of the sample was classified as problem gamblers, the rest as non-problem gamblers. Multivariate analysis of variance showed that there were significant differences between problem and non-problem gamblers on gambling frequency, number of activities, parents' gambling, depression, impulsiveness and motivation, but not on locus of control. Amotivation (apathy) and motivation towards stimulation correlated with powerful others and chance locus of control, and motivation to impress others with powerful others locus of control. Hierarchical regression analysis showed that: (1) beyond gambling frequency, number of activities and parents' gambling, motivation explained a substantial proportion of variance in SOGS scores, with impulsiveness accounting for a lesser amount, and (2) predictors of problem gambling included impulsiveness, amotivation and the motivations for accomplishment and tension release. It was concluded that gambling motivation is a more useful construct than locus of control in explaining problem gambling. Suggestions were made for future research, and aspects of gambling motivation were discussed in terms of a treatment program with groups of problem gamblers.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1996

Examination of a three-dimensional drinking motives questionnaire in a young adult university student sample.

The literature on drinking motives suggests that individuals drink for three distinct reasons: coping motives (CM: to reduce and/or avoid negative emotional states); social motives (SM: to affiliate with others); and enhancement motives (EM: to facilitate positive emotions). Cooper, Russell, Skinner and Windle (1992) [Psychological Assessment, 4, 123-132] developed a 3-dimensional self-report instrument, the Drinking Motives Questionnaire (DMQ), with subscales designed to assess relative frequency of drinking for each of these three motives. This study was designed to examine the psychometric properties of the DMQ in a large sample of young adult university students. Three hundred and fourteen students voluntarily served as subjects; 266 students (85% of the total sample; 196F and 70M) reported drinking on the DMQ. These students were divided into two age groups [20 yr and under (n = 117); 21 yr and older (n = 149)]. Analyses of variance indicated: (a) main effects of gender, with men scoring significantly higher on the DMQ-EM subscale and tending to score higher on the DMQ-SM subscale when compared to women; (b) a main effect of age group on the DMQ-EM subscale, with younger students scoring significantly higher than older students; and (c) a significant main effect of drinking motive, with the most relatively frequent drinking reported for SM and the least for CM overall. Although mild-to-moderate shared variance between subscales was noted, the three subscales of the DMQ were found to possess adequate-to-high levels of internal consistency. A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) showed that the hypothesized 3-factor model provided a better fit than either a unidimensional or 2-factor model in explaining the underlying structure of the DMQ. Some suggestions for improvements in DMQ item content are made. The present results replicate and extend previous findings by Cooper and colleagues to a sample of university students, and support the utility of using the DMQ in future investigations of the drinking motives of young adults.

Adult↗

PubMed1980

Quantitative measurements of proton motive force and motility in Bacillus subtilis.

The protein motive force of metabolizing Bacillus subtilis cells was only slightly affected by changes in the external pH between 5 and 8, although the electrical component and the chemical component of the proton motive force contributed differently at different external pH. The electrical component of the proton motive force was very small at pH 5, and the chemical component was almost negligible at pH 7.5. At external pH values between 6 and 7.7, swimming speed of the cells stayed constant. Thus, either the electrical component or the chemical component of the proton motive force could drive the flagellar motor. When the proton motive force of valinomycin-treated cells was quantitatively decreased by increasing the external K+ concentration, the swimming speed of the cells changed in a unique way: the swimming speed was not affected until about--100 mV, then decreased linearly with further decrease in the proton motive force, and was almost zero at about--30 mV. The rotation rate of a flagellum, measured by a tethered cell, showed essentially the same characteristics. Thus, there are a threshold proton motive force and a saturating proton motive force for the rotation of the B. subtilis flagellar motor.

Bacillus subtilis↗