Search PubMed⌕ Search

SEARCH · Search PubMed

Results for “Judgment”

Search indexed PubMed citations on genomics, clinical trials, systematic reviews and public health. Explore titles, authors and supplied subject terms, then open the PubMed record.

Quote a phrase for an exact phrase match. Source license links do not imply unrestricted reuse.

At least 253 records · Page 14Linked to original sources
PubMed2001

Frontopolar and anterior temporal cortex activation in a moral judgment task: preliminary functional MRI results in normal subjects.

OBJECTIVE: To study the brain areas which are activated when normal subjects make moral judgments. METHOD: Ten normal adults underwent BOLD functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) during the auditory presentation of sentences that they were instructed to silently judge as either "right" or "wrong". Half of the sentences had an explicit moral content ("We break the law when necessary"), the other half comprised factual statements devoid of moral connotation ("Stones are made of water"). After scanning, each subject rated the moral content, emotional valence, and judgment difficulty of each sentence on Likert-like scales. To exclude the effect of emotion on the activation results, individual responses were hemodynamically modeled for event-related fMRI analysis. The general linear model was used to evaluate the brain areas activated by moral judgment. RESULTS: Regions activated during moral judgment included the frontopolar cortex (FPC), medial frontal gyrus, right anterior temporal cortex, lenticular nucleus, and cerebellum. Activation of FPC and medial frontal gyrus (BA 10/46 and 9) were largely independent of emotional experience and represented the largest areas of activation. CONCLUSIONS: These results concur with clinical observations assigning a critical role for the frontal poles and right anterior temporal cortex in the mediation of complex judgment processes according to moral constraints. The FPC may work in concert with the orbitofrontal and dorsolateral cortex in the regulation of human social conduct.

Adult↗
PubMed1988

From inquiry to judgment: age and sex differences in patterns of adult moral thinking and information-seeking.

This research examined age and sex variations in moral judgment processes across the life-span, primarily using objective questionnaire techniques. Both stage level of judgment and patterns of requests for further information following dilemma presentation were studied in 242 respondents, ages fourteen to ninety-two, in order to measure individual differences in judgment orientations hypothesized by Gilligan and suggested by theorists of aging. There were few indications of sex differences in either stage or patterns of information-seeking, except for a generally greater preference for additional information in decision-making by women. With respect to age trends, participants over age seventy-five scored at significantly lower stage levels than younger adult groups. However, elderly adults' judgments did not appear simply "regressed" to earlier developmental levels. On both objective and open-ended measures, older participants seemed more likely than younger groups to assimilate moral dilemma information to their own general cognitive frameworks, consistent with an hypothesis of greater synthesis in judgment among the elderly.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1976

Behavioral analysis of clinical judgment.

Research on clinical judgment has produced conflicting information about effects of training on predictive accuracy, effects of the information available to the clinician, the correlates of accurate judgment, as well as the stability of such judgments. Such conflicting findings are largely related to lack of an adequate methodology. The present study examined the accuracy of judges making longitudinal clinical judgments with systematic increments in available information. Six judges, two non-experienced first-year graduate students in psychology, two medium-experienced practicum students, and two advanced interns, were asked to make discriminations between test protocols belonging to men convicted of first and second degree murder and men convicted of crimes against property. A discriminant function analysis classified 83% of these protocols accurately. Levels of information were increased in four phases. Most of the judges discriminated at a 50% accuracy level. No substantial increment in accuracy across phases was found. Judges of low accuracy discriminated best with the addition of the statistical findings. Daily judgments remained stable within the guessing range.

Criminal Psychology↗
PubMed2003

Human causality judgments and response rates on DRL and DRH schedules of reinforcement.

The effect of various relationships between a response (an investment made in the context of a game) and an outcome (a return on the investment) on judgments of the causal effectiveness of the response was examined. In Experiment 1, response rates and causal judgments were higher for a differential-reinforcement-of-high-rate (DRH) schedule relative to a variable-ratio (VR) schedule with the same probability of outcome following a response. Response rates were also higher for a DRH than for a variable-interval schedule matched for reinforcement rate. In Experiment 2, response rates and causal judgments were lower for a differential-reinforcement-of-low-rate schedule relative to a VR schedule with the same probability of outcome following a response. These results corroborate the view that schedules are a determinant of both response rates and causal judgments, and that few current theories of causal judgment explicitly predict this pattern of results.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Probability judgment and subadditivity: the role of working memory capacity and constraining retrieval.

In this research, we examined the role that individual differences in working memory (WM) capacity, the strength of alternatives, and time constraints play in probability judgment and subadditivity. With a laboratory-based learning task, Experiment 1 revealed that the degree to which participants' probability judgments were subadditive was negatively correlated with a measure of WM capacity, even when variance due to short-term memory capacity was removed. In addition, participants were more subadditive when the viable alternatives were all rather weak. Experiment 2 extended the WM-capacity-subadditivity correlation to a population judgment task and revealed that subadditivity increases when the judgment task is performed under time constraints. Results support a model that assumes that people make probability judgments by comparing the focal hypothesis with relevant alternatives retrieved from long-term memory and that people high in WM span include more alternatives in the comparison process. Time constraints are assumed to truncate the alternative generation process, leading to fewer alternatives being recalled from long-term memory.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Dilution and confirmation of probability judgments based on nondiagnostic evidence.

Previous research has shown that probability judgments based on a mix of diagnostic and nondiagnostic information are less extreme than judgments based on the diagnostic information alone. Results of the present experiments suggest that this dilution effect holds only under a limited set of conditions. When judgments based on a mix of diagnostic and nondiagnostic information are compared with separately elicited judgments based on the diagnostic information alone, the dilution effect is consistently observed. When judgments based on the diagnostic evidence are revised in light of additional, nondiagnostic evidence, by contrast, the dilution effect is eliminated or even reversed (yielding a confirmation effect) depending on the type of nondiagnostic evidence under evaluation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Asymptotic judgment of cause in a relative validity paradigm.

We report three experiments in which we tested asymptotic and dynamic predictions of the Rescorla-Wagner (R-W) model and the asymptotic predictions of Cheng's probabilistic contrast model (PCM) concerning judgments of causality when there are two possible causal candidates. We used a paradigm in which the presence of a causal candidate that is highly correlated with an effect influences judgments of a second, moderately correlated or uncorrelated cause. In Experiment 1, which involved a moderate outcome density, judgments of a moderately positive cause were attenuated when it was paired with either a perfect positive or perfect negative cause. This attenuation was robust over a large set of trials but was greater when the strong predictor was positive. In Experiment 2, in which there was a low overall density of outcomes, judgments of a moderately correlated positive cause were elevated when this cause was paired with a perfect negative causal candidate. This elevation was also quite robust over a large set of trials. In Experiment 3, estimates of the strength of a causal candidate that was uncorrelated with the outcome were reduced when it was paired with a perfect cause. The predictions of three theoretical models of causal judgments are considered. Both the R-W model and Cheng's PCM accounted for some but not all aspects of the data. Pearce's model of stimulus generalization accounts for a greater proportion of the data.

Adult↗
PubMed1992

A study to determine the difference in clinical judgment abilities between BSN and non-BSN graduates.

The purpose of this retrospective study is to determine the difference in clinical judgment abilities of recent baccalaureate nurses (BSN) seeking employment in a large metropolitan hospital and of nurses without a baccalaureate degree. Using an ex post facto design, the orientation records of 116 newly hired nurses were analyzed to determine the clinical judgment abilities using video vignettes produced by Medcom, Inc. Findings indicated that there was no difference in clinical judgment in newly hired BSN and non-BSN graduates. These findings indicate a need for more research studies to determine how clinical judgment is developed and to evaluate teaching strategies that facilitate clinical judgment.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2000

Qualitative analysis of value judgments in interpreting cervicovaginal smears using the Bethesda system.

CONTEXT: We hypothesize that there are unrecognized value judgments that influence cytopathologists in interpreting borderline cervicovaginal smears and that these judgments contribute to the well-documented variation among cytopathologists regarding such diagnoses. OBJECTIVE: To identify and map these values. DESIGN: Survey consisting of Kodachromes and histories for 5 borderline smears. Respondents were asked to give their diagnoses, recommendations for treatment, and reasoning. RESULTS: We demonstrated a wide variation in interpretation of borderline smears similar to previous studies. We then used inductive qualitative analysis to identify the clinical reasoning and value judgments that influenced the responses. CONCLUSIONS: We mapped those diagnostic value judgments that should be used in evaluation borderline cases. We believe this map can be used to rigorously manage and standardize the use of such judgments.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

The accuracy of substituted judgments in patients with terminal diagnoses.

BACKGROUND: Patients' loved ones often make end-of-life treatment decisions, but the accuracy of their substituted judgments and the factors associated with accuracy are poorly understood. OBJECTIVE: To assess the accuracy of judgments made by surrogate decision makers; ascertain the beliefs, practices, and clinical and sociodemographic factors associated with accuracy of surrogates' decisions; assess the preferences of patients for life-sustaining treatments; and compare differences in accuracy across diagnoses. DESIGN: Cross-sectional paired interviews. SETTING: Outpatient practices of three university hospitals. PATIENTS: 250 patients with terminal diagnoses of congestive heart failure, AIDS, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, lung cancer, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (50 patient-surrogate pairs in each group) and 50 general medical patients and their surrogates. MEASUREMENTS: The accuracy of surrogate predictions was measured by using scales based on 10 potential treatments in each of three hypothetical clinical scenarios. RESULTS: Preferences varied according to mode of treatment and scenario. On average, surrogates made correct predictions in 66% of instances. Accuracy was better for the permanent coma scenario than for the scenarios of severe dementia or coma with a small chance of recovery (P < 0.001). In a binary logit model, the accuracy of substituted judgments was positively associated with the patient having spoken with the surrogate about end-of-life issues (odds ratio [OR], 1.9 [95% CI, 1.6 to 2.3]), the patient having private insurance (OR, 1.4 [CI, 1.1 to 1.7]), the surrogate's level of education (OR, 1.5 [CI, 1.2 to 1.9]), and the patient's level of education (OR, 1.7 [CI, 1.4 to 2.2]). Accuracy was negatively associated with the patient's belief that he or she would live longer than 10 years (OR, 0.6 [CI, 0.5 to 0.7]), surrogate experience with life-sustaining treatment (OR, 0.4 [CI, 0.3 to 0.5]), surrogate participation in religious services (OR, 0.67 [CI, 0.50 to 0.91]), and a diagnosis of heart failure (OR, 0.6 [CI, 0.5 to 0.8]). Age, ethnicity, marital status, religion, and advance directives were not associated with accuracy. CONCLUSIONS: The accuracy of substituted judgments is associated with multiple clinically apparent patient and surrogate factors. This information can help clinicians identify conditions under which substituted judgments are likely to be accurate or inaccurate and can help target populations for education designed to improve the accuracy of surrogate decision making.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Schedules of reinforcement as determinants of human causality judgments and response rates.

Experiments examined the effect of relationships between a response and an outcome on human judgments of causal effectiveness. In Experiment 1, the time between outcomes obtained on a variable ratio (VR) schedule became the intervals for a yoked variable interval (VI) schedule. Response rates were higher on the VR than on the VI schedule. In Experiment 2, the number of responses required per outcome on a VR schedule were matched to that on a master VI 20-s schedule. Both ratings of causal effectiveness and response rates were higher in the VR schedule. In Experiment 3, tandem VI fixed-ratio (FR) schedules produced higher rates and judgments than equivalent conjunctive VI FR schedule. In Experiment 4, a VI schedule with a reinforcement requirement for a short interresponse time (IRT) produced higher rates and judgments than a simple VI schedule. These results corroborate the view that schedules are a determinant of both response rates and causal judgments. Few current theories of causal judgment predict this pattern of results.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1978

Criteria for same and different judgments and visual comparison strategies of four-year-olds.

4-year-olds made same and different judgments about pairs of stimuli requiring detailed comparison in 2 conditions: a judgment-only condition and a justification condition in which children explained the reasons for their judgments. The systematic comparison strategies revealed in the justifications indicated that all children had definite criteria for "same" and "different" although about two-thirds of the children used a criterion that differed from the adult criterion. Judgments were more accurate in the justification than in the judgment-only condition, suggesting that overt verbalizations and gestures may provide a beneficial external support for completion of a child's own visual comparison strategy.

Child Development↗
PubMed2005

Liver transplant recipient selection: MELD vs. clinical judgment.

Minimization of death while waiting for liver transplantation involves accurate prioritization according to clinical status and appropriate allocation of donor livers. Clinical judgment in the Liver Transplant Unit Victoria (LTUV) was compared with Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) in a retrospective analysis of the LTUV database over the 2-year period August 1, 2002, through July 31, 2004. A total of 1,118 prioritization decisions occurred. Decisions were concordant in 758 (68%), comparing priorities assigned by clinical judgment with those assigned by MELD, P < 0.01. A total of 263 allocation decisions occurred. Decisions were concordant in 190 (72%) and 203 (77%) of the cases, comparing donor liver allocation with prioritization by MELD and clinical judgment, respectively. Of the 52 patients allocated a liver, only 23 would have been allocated on the basis of MELD while 29 had been prioritized on the waiting list in the week prior to transplantation. A total of 10 patients died on the waiting list in the 2-year period (annual adult waiting list mortality is 9.3%). Patients who subsequently died waiting were 3 times as likely to be prioritized by MELD as clinical judgment (29% vs. 9%, respectively). One half (3 of 6) of the patients who could have received a donor liver but who died waiting would have been allocated the organ on the basis of MELD. In conclusion, an allocation process based on MELD rather than clinical judgment would significantly alter organ allocation in Australia and may reduce waiting list mortality.

Australia↗
PubMed2001

The Effect of Social Influences and General Metacognitive Knowledge on Metamemory Judgments.

This study investigated whether social information can affect Ease-of-Learning (EOL), Judgments-of-Learning (JOL), and Feeling-of-Knowing (FOK) and their accuracy. Participants first learned associated word pairs and made the above-mentioned judgments. They were later divided into two groups of metacognitive ability in order to assess if they had been affected differently by the social cues, which consisted of information about previous performances of college students. Results revealed that the magnitude of the metamemory judgments assessed was significantly affected by the social cues and that participants with a Low level of metacognitive ability were more influenced than those with High metacognitive ability. Concerning accuracy, however, only the recall accuracy of JOL judgments was affected. Further, different patterns of influence across the three judgments were observed for the two ability groups. Results and educational implications were discussed. Copyright 2001 Academic Press.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

Examining Models of Nondominated Decoy Effects across Judgment and Choice.

Three experiments explored cognitive models of inferior, compromise, and phantom decoy effects in both judgment and choice. Participants made judgments of attractiveness, justifiability, and evaluation anxiety associated with each alternative in the set, along with judgments of the attractiveness of each alternative's dimensional values. In another session, they also chose the alternative they most preferred. Results were analyzed in terms of the degree to which decoy effects reflected shifts in dimensional values or reflected emergent values based on relationships with other alternatives in the set. Both emergent-value and value-shift models of inferior decoy effects were supported, but only the emergent-value model of compromise decoy effects was supported. Results for the phantom decoy indicated that this effect was choice-based and did not occur in judgment. Thus, although decoy effects were largely similar in choice and judgment, they also differed in important ways. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1995

Heading judgments during active and passive self-motion.

Previous studies have generally considered heading perception to be a visual task. However, since judgments of heading direction are required only during self-motion, there are several other relevant senses which could provide supplementary and, in some cases, necessary information to make accurate and precise judgments of the direction of self-motion. We assessed the contributions of several of these senses using tasks chosen to reflect the reference system used by each sensory modality. Head-pointing and rod-pointing tasks were performed in which subjects aligned either the head or an unseen pointer with the direction of motion during whole body linear motion. Passive visual and vestibular stimulation was generated by accelerating subjects at sub- or supravestibular thresholds down a linear track. The motor-kinesthetic system was stimulated by having subjects actively walk along the track. A helmet-mounted optical system, fixed either on the cart used to provide passive visual or vestibular information or on the walker used in the active walking conditions, provided a stereoscopic display of an optical flow field. Subjects could be positioned at any orientation relative to the heading, and heading judgments were obtained using unimodal visual, vestibular, or walking cues, or combined visual-vestibular and visual-walking cues. Vision alone resulted in reasonably precise and accurate head-pointing judgments (0.3 degrees constant errors, 2.9 degrees variable errors), but not rod-pointing judgments (3.5 degrees constant errors, 5.9 degrees variable errors). Concordant visual-walking stimulation slightly decreased the variable errors and reduced constant pointing errors to close to zero, while head-pointing errors were unaffected.

Adult↗
PubMed1977

A methodological study of factors affecting the judgment of misarticulated /s/.

Two studies involving judgments of /s/ misarticulation are described. The first involved simultaneous audio and video recordings of three clinically different /s/ misarticulating children. Their recorded /s/ productions, embedded in 54 sentences with varying phonetic contexts, were judged on an acceptable/unacceptable/questionable basis. There was a large proportion of judgments in the questionable category, relatively low interjudge reliability, and few clear enhancing contexts. To better define the problems inherent in using recorded /s/ misarticulations, a second study was undertaken in which six specially chosen /s/ defective and eight normally speaking subjects spoke a set of 12 sentences containing a total of 24 /s/ target words. These productions were judged dichotomously as correct/incorrect under live conditions and from tape recorded conditions. Both normal and /s/ defectives were easily and reliably detected under live speaking conditions; judgments from tape recordings showed a reduction in reliability of judgment and reduced ability to detect the /s/ defective speakers' errors. Examination of the recorded /s/ defective productions revealed that certain phonetic contexts, especially adjacent apical stops, appeared to encourage judgments of correct /s/ productions. Thd discussion includes suggestion concerning techniques for sampling and judging /s/ misarticulations.

Child↗
PubMed2000

Interrater reliability of judgments of the centralization phenomenon and status change during movement testing in patients with low back pain.

OBJECTIVE: To determine the interrater reliability of judgments of status change, including the centralization phenomenon during examination of the lumbar spine, and to determine the effects of training and experience on reliability. DESIGN: A videotape study of judgments by physical therapists and physical therapy students of the results of movement testing during the examination of patients with low back pain. SETTING: Outpatient physical therapy clinic. PATIENTS: Patients receiving physical therapy treatment for low back pain. INTERVENTION: Patients with low back pain were videotaped while performing a variety of movement tests including single, repeated, and sustained movements. Forty licensed physical therapists and 40 physical therapy students were provided with operational definitions of the three potential judgments of status change with movement testing; centralization, peripheralization, status quo. All therapists and students viewed the videotape and made a judgment regarding the patient's status change in response to the test. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Percentage agreement and kappa coefficient values for agreement. RESULTS: Interrater reliability was excellent for the total sample of examiners (kappa = .793), for the licensed physical therapists (kappa = .823), and for the students (kappa = .763). CONCLUSIONS: Judgments of status change are reliable when operational definitions are provided. Clinical experience does not appear to substantially improve reliability.

Adult↗