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High-level gymnastic training may cause clinical and radiographic changes in the wrist. A case is reported demonstrating bilateral closure of the ulnar side of the distal radius epiphyseal plate in a patient with a history of high-level gymnastic training. Cumulative microtrauma to the ulnar side of the distal radius epiphyseal plate may cause premature closure leading to a Madelung-like deformity.
The aim of the present investigation was to study the possible effects of specificity of training on muscle strength and anaerobic power in children from different sports and at different performance levels in relation to growth and maturation status. Hundred and eighty-four children of both gender participating either in swimming, tennis, team handball or gymnastics were recruited from the best clubs in Denmark. Within each sport, the coach had divided the children into an elite (E) and non-elite (NE) group according to performance level and talent. Tanner stage assessment and body weight and height measurements were performed by a physician. The anaerobic performances were assessed by Wingate tests and jumping performance in squat jump (SJ), countermovement jump (CMJ) and drop jump (DJ) from two heights. Most of the differences between groups in Wingate performance disappeared when the data were normalised to body mass. The gymnasts were the best jumpers and their superiority were increased in the more complex motor coordination tasks like DJ. The results may indicate some influence of training specificity, especially on the more complex motor tasks as DJ and there may be an effect of training before puberty. The performance in the less complex motor tasks like cycling and SJ and CMJ may also be influenced by specific training, but not to the same extent, and heritance may be an important factor for performance in these anaerobic tasks.
A gymnast is prone to catch specific acute and overload injuries as well. Those injuries are concentrated at the spine due to the fact, that high load is administered to the growing apophyseal elements. Preventive X-ray examinations are useless in this respect, because the gymnasts training starts at the age of 5-6 years and apophyseal ossification nuclei develop not before the age of about 11-13 years. On the other hand regular performed preventive clinical examinations seem to be important for preventive reasons. For this purpose we developed specific clinical tests which allow early recognition of overuse injuries while they are in a latent phase and while the athlete does not complain any pain. Furthermore staging of the injury is possible and healing response can be controlled.
The contribution of opioid receptors to the mood effects of aerobic gymnastics was tested by oral administration of naltrexone (25 or 50 mg) in 12 healthy women (aged 22 - 30 years). The opioid receptor blockade eliminated decreased anxiety, negative affect level and depressiveness as well as increased positive affect level, as found in a placebo trial after a 50 min session of aerobic gymnastics. 50 mg of naltrexone was more effective than 25 mg. Administration of 50 mg of naltrexone without exercise did not cause any significant changes in anxiety, positive and negative affect levels or depressiveness.
Recent studies reported reduced immunity in athletes following exercise. Physical activity affects both cellular and humoral immune functions. Scant information exists on exercise-induced changes in the immune system among children. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the effect of aerobic exercise on several aspects of cellular and humoral functions among 10-12 year-old highly trained female gymnasts (n = 7) and untrained girls (n = 6). All girls were pre-pubertal. Venous blood samples were drawn before, immediately after and 24 h following 20 min of treadmill running (heart rate 170-180 beats.min-1). White blood cells' number rose significantly following exercise and remained elevated for 24 h. The increase in leukocyte number was due to an increase in granulocytes as well as an increase in lymphocytes and monocytes. While neutrophil count returned to basal values after 24 h, lymphocytes and monocytes number remained elevated 24 h following exercise. Exercise resulted in a significant elevation of T cell lymphocytes, T helpers, T suppressors and natural killer cells. All values returned to normal after 24 h. There were no changes in B cell lymphocytes following exercise. Exercise had no effect on serum IgA, IgM, IgE, IgG and sub-types of IgG (IgG1, IgG2, IgG3 and IgG4). No differences were observed between gymnasts and untrained girls. In summary, the exercise-induced changes in cellular and humoral immune functions among the girls were generally similar to those described in adults. Whether the transitory effects of exercise on the immune system are related to increased susceptibility to illness is still questionable.
The present investigation examined the validity of near-infrared interactance (NIR) estimates of relative body fat (% fat) from the Futrex-5000 (F5000), Futrex-5000A (F5000 A), and Futrex-1000 (F1000) instruments. Ninety-eight female high school gymnasts (X age+/-SD = 15.7+/-1.2 yr) participated in this investigation. Subsamples were used to cross-validate the F5000 (n = 52), F5000A (n = 46), and F1000 (n = 89) instruments. The NIR % fat estimates were validated against criterion % fat from underwater weighing (UWW) using the adult conversion constants of Brozek et al. (6) (UWWB) and the female age-specific constants of Lohman (23) (UWWL). The cross-validation statistical analysis included examination of the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), r, and total error (TE). In addition, full-model multiple regression analyses were used to predict UWWB or UWWL from body weight (BW) and height (HT). BW and HT were correlated with % fat at R = 0.65-0.70, while the validity coefficients for the NIR instruments ranged from r = 0.40-0.78. The F5000 resulted in nonsignificant CE values (-0.3 % fat vs UWWB and 1.5 % fat vs UWWL; p > 0.008) as well as the lowest TE values (TE = 3.1 % fat vs UWWB and 4.0 % fat vs UWWL). All other NIR estimates of % fat resulted in TE values > or = 6.3 % fat. In addition, for all NIR instruments there were negative correlations for the plots of the CE versus the mean of predicted and criterion (UWWB and UWWL) % fat. Therefore, the present findings indicated that the F5000 provided more accurate estimates of % fat than the F5000A or F1000 instruments, but may underestimate the desired minimal body weight for female gymnasts at the low end of the % fat distribution.
The development of preventive provisions is an important topic of sport accident research. We demonstrate the stepwise procedure of judging a provision taking the analysis of a gymnastic exercise. This includes determination of the inner and outer reasons of accidents, the biomechanical conditions of the exercise and leads to mathematical and experimental simulation of the dangerous movement. The specific exercise we studied was the efficiency of a coach in protecting position for the handstand somersault with 1 1/2 breakneck leap. The reaction ability of the coach during the exercise and his force capacity to prevent an accident is explored by a newly developed reaction time analyzer and by a catapult apparatus throwing a dummy. Our results show the inadequacy of the prevention provision of a coach in protecting position for the special gymnastic exercise.
Top-level gymnasts were examined in 1976 and in 1980. During both examinations X-ray osteal changes as a result of training were found. In 1980 complaints of pain during the training process were analyzed. It was found that radiological changes appeared in the elbow joints (73.2%), spinal column (65.8%), in the area of the shoulder joints (59.8%), and in the wrist joints (58.5%). The L-S segment of the spinal column had such anomalies as schistorrhachis of the S1 arc, lumbarization, and sacralization. A characteristic feature was the frequent discrepancy between complaints of pain and radiological changes. In many cases permanent radiological changes were not accompanied by pain. Longer training periods were associated with more pronounced changes. It was concluded that radiological examinations should be one of the criteria for selecting gymnasts and a change in the FIG regulations is proposed to reduce the work load of the motor system.
OBJECTIVE: To examine changes in bone and body composition of adolescent female artistic gymnasts (GYM; n = 7), level 5+, compared with nongymnast controls (CON; n = 10) over 3 years. STUDY DESIGN: Areal bone mineral density (aBMD; g/cm(2)), bone mineral content (BMC; g) and bone area (cm(2)), of the total body (TB), total proximal femur (TPF), trochanter (Tr), femoral neck, lumbar spine (LS), and distal radius were measured using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. Fat-free soft tissue mass (FFST; g), fat mass (g), and percent body fat (%FAT) were also assessed. RESULTS: No initial differences in height or weight between GYM and CON were observed, and both groups demonstrated parallel increases in these parameters over time (P <.05; h(2) >or=0.15). At baseline, GYM possessed significantly lower %FAT and higher aBMD at all sites (except TB; P <.05; h(2) >or=0.15). Over 3 years, GYM increased more than CON (P <.05; eta (2) >or=0.15) in TB, Tr, and TPF aBMD, TB and LS BMC, and FFST. CONCLUSION: Female adolescents participating in competitive artistic gymnastics training over 3 years have enhanced rates of aBMD, BMC and FFST accrual.
Visualizations under hypnosis enabled nationally ranked Stanford male gymnasts to execute for the first time several complex tricks that they had been working on for over a year. The gymnasts were able to eliminate timing errors in the tricks, to increase flexibility, and, possibly, to concentrate strength. The rationale for the effectiveness of trance visualizations, the induction and deepening strategies used, and the effects are described. Also included is an example of the use of a translator for the induction of a subject with a minimal fluency in English. Implications for further use of hypnosis with athletes are suggested.
The aim of this study was to determine the mechanical variables that govern success of the Hecht vault. The participants were 122 male gymnasts from 30 countries performing the vault at the 1995 World Gymnastics Championships. The vaults were filmed using a Photosonics 16-mm motion picture camera operating at 100 Hz. Approximately 80 frames were digitized for each vault analysed. The method of Hay and Reid was used to develop a theoretical model to identify the mechanical and physical variables that determine linear and angular motions of the vault. Correlational analysis was used to establish the strength of the relationship between the causal mechanical variables identified in the model and the judges' scores. Significant correlations (P < 0.005) indicated that the following were important determinants of success: large horizontal and vertical velocities at take-off from the board and the horse; large vertical and angular distances of pre-flight; large vertical impulses of high force and short duration exerted on the horse and the resulting large changes in vertical velocity on the horse; and large horizontal and vertical distances and long times of post-flight. Of the 18 significant variables identified in the present study, the angular distance of pre- and post-flights, the horizontal velocity and angular momentum at take-off from the horse, and the average moment of inertia and duration of post-flight collectively accounted for 57% of the variation in the judges' scores.
In this study, we examined the methods used and knowledge required by 16 elite men's gymnastic coaches in the development of skill progressions. Following in-depth interviews, a conceptual model representing the process of skill progression development was generated. We found that: (1) elite gymnastic coaches developed skill progressions through experimental practice, reflection and critical inquiry; (2) the development of skill progressions was underpinned by the coaches acquiring a mindset based on four further sub-components (i.e. skill progression refinement, current coaching knowledge, mental imagery and biomechanical understanding); and (3) coaches identified the importance of replication of the spatial and temporal characteristics of the final skill. The results are consistent with task analysis, reflective practice and the principle of specificity. Practically, these findings suggest the need to develop coaches with a more objective approach to skill progression development and a greater understanding of the controlling mechanisms inherent in such practices.
In this study, we examined the effectiveness of auditory concurrent feedback on body segmental alignment during the circle movement performed on a pommel horse. Eighteen gymnasts were assigned to one of two groups: a concurrent auditory feedback group (experimental) or a control group that received no concurrent feedback. After 2 weeks of training (300 circles), the body segmental alignment (BSA) of the experimental group had improved by 2.3% between the pre test (85.7 +/- 4.8% BSA(max)) and the post test (87.7 +/- 4.0% BSA(max)). Furthermore, the results of a retention test administered 2 weeks after the post test revealed no decline in performance for the experimental group. No gains in body segmental alignment were found for the control group. It was concluded that augmented auditory feedback made available in real time can be used to correct complex movements, such as the circle movement on a pommel horse, and does not appear to lead to information-dependence despite the frequent administration of feedback. The auditory signal available in real time could help gymnasts to become more objective about their own intrinsic information necessary for the refinement of the circle movement.
Eighteen volunteer female subjects received preliminary instruction in a simple gymnastics bench sequence. They were then given a pre-intervention test on a bench at ground level. Self-reported distress, an independent observer's ratings of distress and heart rates were monitored immediately prior to performance of the sequence. Performances were also videotaped and formally scored by a qualified gymnastics judge. Subjects were then randomly assigned to a stress inoculation training group or a 'no stress management' training control group. Stress inoculation group subjects then received seven sessions of training in relaxation, imagery and making self-statements in order to develop a set of coping skills. Control group subjects also received seven training sessions during which they practised a series of coordination exercises, but no psychological stress management training was given to this group. All subjects were then re-tested on the bench sequence but this time at a height of 1.52 m. Self-reported stress, observer's ratings of distress and heart rate were recorded as before. Performance was again videotaped for scoring. The stress inoculation group reported significantly less stress prior to the test on the elevated beam than the control group. However, the groups did not differ in terms of heart rate. Further, the stress inoculation group performed reliably better than the control group on the elevated bench.
Twenty-six subjects were selected from 25 American and 28 Japanese gymnasts filmed during their respective 1990 national championships. The 13 highest (Group 1) and 13 lowest (Group 2) scored basket-to-handstand mounts on the parallel bars were compared. It was hypothesized that there would be significant differences between the kinematics demonstrated by the gymnasts from the two groups and that differences in the early preparatory phases would account for most of the differences in the resulting movements. The results revealed significant differences (P < 0.005) between the two groups, with Group 1 achieving greater vertical displacement of the centre of mass during the upward inverted swing and larger vertical velocity at bar release; greater backward horizontal motion of the centre of mass and forward body rotation in the flight phase; and a higher body centre of mass at bar regrasp with greater fluency of upward body motion into the handstand position. There were no significant differences between the two groups in the performance of the jump to end of backward swing and forward swing to maximum body pike that could be attributed to the differences in the last three phases. Based on the findings of this study, successful performance is likely when the arm pull is sustained with maximum effort until the body centre of mass and the trunk are well above the bars to enable the bar release with high body centre of mass, high body angle, large vertical velocity, backward horizontal velocity and forward angular momentum. This brings about (1) the desired direction of linear motion of centre of mass and (2) high body centre of mass and high body angle close to the handstand position at bar regrasp, which together ensure the fluency of upward body motion into the final position.
It has been hypothesized that young athletes, undertaking intensive training, have delayed menarche due to the effects of training at an early age, although it is known that other genetic and environmental factors contribute to this observed later menarche. As part of a longitudinal study of the effects of intensive training during puberty and adolescence we investigated age of menarche in 222 athletes and their mothers. All the sports studied (gymnastics, swimming and tennis) had later mean ages of menarche (14.3, 13.3 and 13.2 years respectively) than the previously reported UK reference value of 13.00 years. A positive correlation was found between menarcheal age in mothers and daughters (r = 0.27, p < 0.01). Analysis of covariance, using maternal menarcheal age, socioeconomic group, duration of training and type of sport, confirmed that maternal menarcheal age and type of sport were having a significant influence on subject's age of menarche. As maternal menarcheal age and sport were the best predictors of menarcheal age in the athletes we studied, it would appear that menarche was intrinsically late rather than delayed. This suggests that some form of sport-specific selection may have occurred. It therefore seems likely that late maturation of gymnasts contributes to a girl's decision to continue participating in the sport rather than intensive training delaying menarche.
Biomechanical research into artistic gymnastics has grown substantially over the years. However, most research is still skill oriented with few tries at generalization. Consequently, our understanding of the principles and bases of the sport, although improved, is still marginal with gaps in knowledge about technique attributes throughout the sport. For that reason, this review begins with an attempt to identify important variables contributing to successful performance. The review is presented in clusters of work in similar apparatuses culminating in Tables offering an 'at a glance' summary of knowledge in each cluster. The last section of the review tries to give some direction to future biomechanical research in gymnastics in issues relating to data collection--two-dimensional or three-dimensional, image size, frame rate--and analysis, such as descriptive or explanatory, simulation and optimization, and statistical issues.
A 24-year-old female gymnast had a 3-month history of bilateral forearm pain. A Tc-99m MDP bone scan demonstrated focally increased activity in the radial shafts on blood pool and delayed images, characteristic of fatigue fractures. Fatigue fractures commonly occur in the lower extremities. Upper extremity fatigue fractures, in contrast, are uncommon and usually involve the humerus or ulna. Fatigue fracture of the radial shaft from gymnastic exercise has not been previously reported.