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PubMed2004

Explicit phoneme training combined with phonic reading instruction helps young children at risk of reading failure.

BACKGROUND: We evaluate the effectiveness of three theoretically motivated programmes for the teaching of reading to four-year-old children. METHOD: Four hundred and ten children, of pre-kindergarten age, in 20 UK Reception-year classrooms were divided into four matched groups and randomly assigned to one of three experimental teaching conditions, Reading with Rhyme, Reading with Phoneme, Reading with Rhyme and Phoneme, or to a taught control condition (Reading). In each condition the Reading element contained a strong phonic component. RESULTS: There were no selective effects of the different experimental teaching programmes for normally developing children. However, for those children identified as being at risk of reading failure, training in phoneme skills resulted in selective gains in phoneme awareness and in reading skills. CONCLUSIONS: A reading programme that contains a highly structured phonic component is sufficient for most 4.5-year-old children to master the alphabetic principle and to learn to read effectively, without additional explicit phonological training. In contrast, for young children at risk of reading delay, additional training in phoneme awareness and linking phonemes with letters is beneficial.

Achievement↗

PubMed2006

An implicit plan overrides an explicit strategy during visuomotor adaptation.

The relationship between implicit and explicit processes during motor learning, and for visuomotor adaptation in particular, is poorly understood. We set up a conflict between implicit and explicit processes by instructing subjects to counter a visuomotor rotation using a cognitive strategy in a pointing task. Specifically, they were told the exact nature of the directional perturbation, a rotation that directed them 45 degrees counterclockwise from the desired target, and they were instructed to counter it by aiming for the neighboring clockwise target, 45 degrees away. Subjects were initially successful in completely negating the rotation with this strategy. Surprisingly, however, they were unable to sustain explicit control and made increasingly large errors to the desired target. The cognitive strategy failed because subjects simultaneously adapted unconsciously to the rotation to the neighboring target. Notably, the rate of implicit adaptation to the neighboring target was not significantly different from rotation adaptation in the absence of an opposing explicit strategy. These results indicate that explicit strategies cannot substitute for implicit adaptation to a visuomotor rotation and are in fact overridden by the motor planning system. This suggests that the motor system requires that planned and executed trajectories remain congruous in visual space, and enforces this correspondence even at the expense of an opposing explicit task goal.

Adaptation, Physiological↗

PubMed2001

Instructional manipulations and age differences in memory: now you see them, now you don't.

The instructions for most explicit memory tests use language that emphasizes the memorial component of the task. This language may put older adults at a disadvantage relative to younger adults because older adults believe that their memories have deteriorated. Consequently, typical explicit memory tests may overestimate age-related decline in cognitive performance. In 2 experiments, older and younger adults performed a memory test on newly learned trivia. In both experiments, age differences were obtained when the instructions emphasized the memory component of the task (memory emphasis) but not when the instructions did not emphasize memory (memory neutral). These findings suggest that aspects of the testing situation. such as experimental instructions, may exaggerate age differences in memory performance and need to be considered when designing studies investigating age differences in memory.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1988

Maternal language environment of children with mental retardation.

Maternal language directed towards children with mental retardation and children matched either for language ability or chronological age was compared in free-play and instruction situations. Results were consistent with the hypothesis that mothers of children with retardation match their verbal behavior to their children's language ability while at the same time adopting a more pervasive teaching role. Specifically, they were more directive, but only in free-play. When explicitly asked to instruct their child, they changed very little in comparison with control mothers, whose directive behavior altered to levels previously adopted in free-play by mothers of children with mental retardation.

Child Language↗

PubMed1979

[Field research in the social sciences].

The different types of field research in social sciences are arranged according to two theoretically independent dimensions: the experimental design (experimental, quasi-experimental, pre-experimental) and the "field" of research, which consists of a treatment (independent variable) and a behavior (dependent variable) part. Each part can be natural: natural treatment means that naturally occuring treatments means that no instructions (implicite or explicite) are given to the subjects. Both parts can be used in natural or artificial settings, and both of them can occur with or without the subject knowing the fact that a research is done or which are the hypotheses. Therefore, as an example, a study can consist of an artificial treatment in natural setting without the subjects knowing it, while the measured behavior is instructed (e. g. responding a questionnaire) in an artificial setting and the subjects well know that their behavior is measured, but they ignore the objective of the study. Some problems are discussed. Final conclusion is that both laboratory and field studies should be done, one completing the other, and both have their advantages and difficulties.

Humans↗

PubMed1995

Medical student knowledge levels and performance in doing HIV risk assessment.

The primary purpose of the study was to develop and evaluate a training program for medical students in sexual history-taking and HIV risk assessment. Sexual-history-taking performance was evaluated in the semester subsequent to the one in which the students received the instruction. An additional purpose of the study was to determine whether students, following participation in a sexual-history training program, would take a sexual history when course instructions did not explicitly direct her/him to do so but the patient presented with HIV risk factors. A final goal was to find out whether direct participation in, versus only observation of, sexual-history interviews would improve performance. Adequate performance on measurement on knowledge and skills was defined as above 75% correct on content examinations and satisfactory performance of the sexual history. Results showed that, when course instruction directed students to take a sexual history, performance was excellent. When students were not specifically directed to take a sexual history, but the patient had an HIV risk factor, performance was not as consistent. Following participation in the training program, student attitudes about the importance of taking a sexual history were very positive. Finally, when a student conducted a sexual-history interview him/herself, compared with viewing other students taking a history, he/she showed no significant improvement in examination performance.

Clinical Competence↗

PubMed2002

Intrusive effects of implicitly processed information on explicit memory.

This study described the interference of implicitly processed information on the memory for explicitly processed information. Participants studied a list of words either auditorily or visually under instructions to remember the words (explicit study). They were then visually presented another word list under instructions which facilitate implicit but not explicit processing. Following a distractor task, memory for the explicit study list was tested with either a visual or auditory recognition task that included new words, words from the explicit study list, and words implicitly processed. Analysis indicated participants both failed to recognize words from the explicit study list and falsely recognized words that were implicitly processed as originating from the explicit study list. However, this effect only occurred when the testing modality was visual, thereby matching the modality for the implicitly processed information, regardless of the modality of the explicit study list. This "modality effect" for explicit memory was interpreted as poor source memory for implicitly processed information and in light of the procedures used. as well as illustrating an example of "remembering causing forgetting."

Adolescent↗

PubMed1975

Differences between behavior therapists and psychotherapists.

Patient-therapist interaction patterns of three experienced behavior therapists and three matched analytically oriented therapists were compared. Each therapist saw ten patients in short-term individual therapy. The more active behavior therapists dominated the conversation in terms of speech time, more frequently offered explicit advice and instructions, gave more direct information, presented their own value judgments, and exerted greater control over the content of the interaction than did psychotherapists. Although both groups provided a warm and accepting atmosphere, behavior therapists showed higher levels of accurate empathy, interpersonal contact, and therapist self-congruence. Patients viewed behavior therapists as more authoritarian and believed that psychotherapists encourage greater independence. It was concluded that the two therapy approaches to patients were consistent with theoretical models of each.

Behavior Therapy↗

PubMed1995

Teaching theory of mind: a new approach to social skills training for individuals with autism.

This study examined the effectiveness of a social skills training program for normal-IQ adolescents with autism. Five boys participated in the 4 1/2-month treatment condition; four boys matched on age, IQ, and severity of autism constituted the no-treatment control group. In addition to teaching specific interactional and conversational skills, the training program provided explicit and systematic instruction in the underlying social-cognitive principles necessary to infer the mental states of others (i.e., theory of mind). Pre- and post-intervention assessment demonstrated meaningful change in the treatment group's performance on several false belief tasks, but no improvement in the control sample. No changes, however, were demonstrated on general parent and teacher ratings of social competence for either group.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Adult identity mentoring: reducing sexual risk for African-American seventh grade students.

PURPOSE: This study was undertaken to determine whether the Adult Identity Mentoring (AIM) project successfully promotes abstinence, delays initiation of sex, and decreases intention to engage in sex. METHODS: Twenty middle school classes of African-American seventh graders were randomly assigned to receive either the AIM intervention or a standard health education control curriculum. The AIM is a 10-session curriculum based on the theory of possible selves. Class exercises encourage students to articulate a possible future self-identity and to develop self-promotion skills. Surveys about sexual activity were conducted before the intervention, 19 weeks after baseline, and again at 1 year after the intervention. RESULTS: Hierarchical logistic regression analyses showed significant effects for the intervention on sexual intentions, abstinence, and a trend toward fewer virgins initiating intercourse for the first time, 19 weeks after baseline. Specifically, students who received the intervention showed decreased intention to engage in sex and increased abstinence compared with students not receiving the intervention. Effects for 1-year follow-up, with smaller sample size, showed only that AIM male participants maintained the significant abstinence effect. CONCLUSIONS: A new intervention, AIM was evaluated among African-American seventh graders. This program, by focusing students on positive future selves, effectively modified sexual risk without directly providing instruction on sexually explicit topics.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Relational control in difficult physician-patient encounters: negotiating treatment for pain.

Many physicians report feelings of frustration and anger resulting from encounters with patients during which there is disagreement over the use of narcotics to treat pain. In this article, investigators report a relational control analysis of transcripts of three encounters of this type in order to explore the control dimension of these interactions. Similar analyses in the literature have reported that patients in general attempt to gain control of the interaction more often than previously thought. Results of this analysis, however, were remarkable in that nearly half of the transactions were characterized by competition for control. In addition, a descriptive analysis of the control-gaining strategies revealed physician strategies of giving instructions and orders, explicitly rejecting or disagreeing, providing reasons, and attempting to negotiate; patient strategies included explicitly rejecting or disagreeing and providing reasons. Communication skills training may enhance physicians' ability to understand their feelings of discomfort in this type of interaction as well as train them to be more effective communicators during interactions in which there is a struggle for control.

Communication↗

PubMed1984

An evaluation of the use of statistical methodology in the Journal of Infectious Diseases.

One hundred fourteen articles published in the Journal of Infectious Diseases in 1982 were evaluated for the occurrence of eight commonly made statistical errors. Seventy-one percent of Original Articles and 50% of presentations in the Data Forum used statistical methods to analyze results. Almost all of the articles that used statistics contained at least one statistical error. The most common inadequacy, which occurred in 95% of the articles with statistical data, was the statement of a probability value without a complete summary of the statistical results. The most common error was the failure to include a correction for multiple comparisons. These results suggest that a more clearly stated statistical policy, a more explicit set of instructions to authors, and closer editorial attention to statistical methodology, perhaps at the prepublication phase, would improve the validity of articles published in the Journal.

Communicable Diseases↗

PubMed1995

Programmed writing and therapy with symbiotically enmeshed patients.

This paper illustrates how programmed writing lessons to be completed as homework assignments can be used in conjunction with traditional verbal psychotherapy. Each patient was involved in a symbolically enmeshed relationship. Special benefits for patients from the combination of programmed writing lessong with traditional psychotherapy were: (1) increased couple communication; (2) possibly more rapid change; (3) possibly shorter-term therapy; (4) increased forgotten trauma discovery; (5) and increased explicit and specific instructions. Patients were informed from the outset that the use of programmed writing lessons would or might: (1) help the therapist get a better idea of what was going on in regard to the development, values, rules, etc. of their symbiotic relationships; (2) decrease the time spent in therapy, and (3) encourage self-realization through self-directed assignments between sessions. For psychotherapists there are advantages of: (1) putting the responsibility for change on the shoulders of patients rather than on themselves; (2) using programs of theoretical and therapeutic approaches that may not be well known to the therapist; (3) reducing the frequency of sessions and administering written homework assignments when the therapist is on vacation; and (4) increasing the number of patients that can be seen for unit of therapist's time.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1990

The effectiveness of two methods for teaching a constraint-seeking questioning strategy to students with learning disabilities.

This study investigated the relative effectiveness of two methods of teaching an efficient questioning strategy to students with learning disabilities. The methods compared were (a) cognitive modeling alone in the use of constraint-seeking questions, and (b) cognitive modeling and verbalization in the use of constraint-seeking questions, involving explicit and consistent instruction and feedback. Sixty subjects with learning disabilities were assigned randomly to one of these two conditions (n = 30 in each group). A pretreatment and posttreatment design was employed, with the criterion variable being number of questions required to obtain the correct answers to two 20 questions games. Results indicated that both groups showed significant reductions from pretreatment to posttreatment in the number of questions required. The two methods of instruction did not differ significantly in effectiveness.

Attention↗

PubMed1994

Preoperative fasting in children.

The development of new preoperative fasting guidelines in paediatrics was reviewed in the light of present knowledge and some recent investigations. Although the proportion of healthy children with the potential risk of aspiration pneumonitis is relatively high (60-75%), the incidence of aspiration is low--1 to 8.6 in 10,000. In healthy children, there is no increase in the risk of aspiration by allowing them to drink clear fluids up to 2-3 hours before anaesthesia when compared with the conventional fasting regimen. The children are less thirsty and less irritable. The occurrence of hypoglycaemia and hypovolaemia in small infants may also be reduced. However, it is essential to identify high risk cases by clinical judgement and to treat them differently in their management. It is useful to have simple and explicit preoperative fasting instructions for parents to follow, especially in the day case setting. It is essential to note that the laryngeal mask airway (LMA) does not protect the patient's airway against the risk of regurgitation and aspiration of gastric contents in the same way as an endotracheal tube. Hence, constant vigilance is required when LMA is used in children.

Child↗

PubMed1993

Reproductive toxicology guidelines: comparison and application.

Reproductive toxicity studies currently recommended by the three principal regulatory agencies, the United States Food and Drug Administration (FDA), the Committee for Proprietary Medicinal Products (CPMP) of the European Economic Community and the Japanese Ministry of Health and Welfare (MHW), have a three-segment design, with essentially similar objectives in identifying any possible adverse effects of medicinal products on all stages of the reproductive process in animals, in order to evaluate the potential risk in man. However, differences exist between the various guidelines which give rise to considerable difficulties in amalgamating experimental designs to comply with all three agencies. The main differences are between Western and Japanese recommendations and can be identified in two points which are cause for debate and form an obstacle to the mutual acceptance of studies: a) the treatment periods during pregnancy and b) the extent of studies on the progeny reared to maturity. Both points concern solely studies in rodents and are based on a different approach to the subject. Advantages and disadvantages of the differences in each study segment are considered in relation to practical applications. In comparing recommendations from different agencies, shortcomings in the instructions and nebulous or questionable requirements, but also valuable directives, are highlighted, in the hope that regulatory authorities can be encouraged to provide exhaustive information and instructions and more explicit policies in the new coordinated guidelines which are expected as a result of international harmonization. To this end, the need for greater flexibility is stressed, since the conventional designs of the segments often prove inapplicable or are deemed inadequate or unnecessary in the case of drugs whose pharmacological activity interferes with the reproductive process or which are intended for particular therapeutic modalities or purposes. In particular, regulatory authorities are urged to provide specific, coordinated guidelines for antitumor agents, taking into account that their technical application in animals should reflect treatment modalities and therapeutic uses in humans.

Abnormalities, Drug-Induced↗

PubMed1995

Cost effective computerized decision support: tracking caregiver acceptance at the point of care.

We implemented a computerized decision support tool to standardize the administration of supplemental oxygen (O2) therapy in the acute care (non-ICU) hospital setting. Caregiver acceptance of the computerizeds oxygen therapy protocol (COTP) instructions was measured to determine the clinical performance of the computerized decision support tool. 49.6% of instructions generated were followed by the clinical caregiver, and 16.8% of instructions generated were explicitly acknowledged by the user through the COTP computer interface. Despite this low caregiver response rate, significant favorable changes in the administration of oxygen were observed. This paper is focused on the issues of general importance the caregiver response rate raises for the implementation and clinical use of computerized decision support tools, including: (1) limitations of the user interface and (2) inherent difficulty in changing long-standing practice patterns.

Attitude to Computers↗

PubMed1997

Thought suppression in spider phobia.

The current study examined the role of thought suppression in spider phobia. Spider phobic (n = 41) and non-phobic (n = 40) subjects were asked to monitor their thoughts for three 5 min periods. During the first period, all subjects were instructed to "think about anything". During the second period, half of the subjects received suppression instructions (i.e., subjects were explicitly asked "not to think of spiders"), whereas the other half once again received instructions to "think about anything". During the third period, all subjects were instructed to "think about anything". Spider-related thoughts were monitored on-line. Also, subjects retrospectively estimated the amount of time they had spent thinking about spiders. Overall, spider phobics reported higher levels of spider-related thoughts than non-phobic subjects. Furthermore, phobic subjects tried harder to suppress spider-related thoughts than non-phobic subjects. Finally, although some evidence was found for the counterproductive effects of thought suppression, its contribution to the frequency of spider-related thoughts was minimal.

Adult↗