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PubMed2002

Diseases of farmed crocodiles and ostriches.

Crocodiles and ostriches are very sensitive to stress, and the ideal conditions for intensive rearing have not yet been established. Consequently, mortality is often directly linked to conditions on the farm. Crocodile and caiman pox, adenoviral hepatitis, mycoplasmosis, chlamydiosis and coccidiosis are crocodile-specific infections with reservoirs in wild populations and adult wild-caught breeding stock. Other important conditions are salmonellosis, non-specific septicaemia, trichinellosis, the nutritional diseases osteomalacia, fat necrosis and gout, as well as winter sores. The only ostrich-specific transmissible disease is libyostrongylosis. Other important conditions are Newcastle disease, avian influenza, fading chick syndrome, tibiotarsal rotation and enteritis. No cases of coccidiosis in ostriches have ever been confirmed.

Alligators and Crocodiles↗
PubMed2004

Ostrich nutrition: a review from a Zimbabwean perspective.

The ostrich is an important animal in many livestock industries and, in the developing world, the export of meat and skins is a valuable source of foreign currency. As the successful growth and reproductive performance of ostriches depends on good nutrition it is extremely important to provide the correct diet. Some researchers have incorrectly assumed that poultry diets are useful for ostriches, but the vitamin and mineral requirements of these birds are unique and their diets should never be substituted with poultry or other livestock feeds. Producers should be knowledgeable about how different ingredients provide the essential nutrients for growth and development. Adequate nutrition is key to good flock performance and more research into ostrich nutrition is required. In Zimbabwe, one of the greatest costs involved in the keep of ostrich breeder birds is purchased feed, which can cost approximately US$ 4,555 for every 10 birds per annum. In order to cover these costs, the producer needs to ensure an adequate supply of birds for slaughter.

Animal Feed↗
PubMed2001

Development of the refractive state in eyes of ostrich chicks (Struthio camelus).

OBJECTIVE: To follow the development of the refractive error in the eyes of ostrich chicks from age 0 to day 37 after hatching. ANIMALS: 35 ostrich chicks. PROCEDURES: Spot retinoscopy was conducted to assess refractive error in ostrich chicks. Seventy eyes of 35 ostrich chicks were examined. Of these, 18 chicks were followed over time. At least 4 serial measurements (at 2- to 7- day intervals) were conducted in each of these chicks from day 1 to 37 after hatching. Seventeen additional chicks were examined on days 0, 3, 12, and 19 after hatching. RESULTS: Ostrich chicks were myopic at hatching, with a mean +/- SD refractive error of -4.47 +/- 0.15 diopters (D). The refractive error rapidly decreased during the first week of life, and by day 7 after hatching, chicks were slightly hyperopic, with a mean refractive error of 0.42 +/- 0.12 D. After day 7, there were no significant differences in the mean refractive error. CONCLUSIONS: The development of optics in the ostrich eye appears to be unique among animals and is characterized by myopia at hatching, rapid onset of emmetropia, and minimal variation in refractive error among chicks.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Urinary excretion of diethylstilbestrol in the ostrich.

Stilboestrol tablets (20 x 1 mg) were given to 4 ostriches. Urine was collected over a period of 8 days and stored frozen at-20 degrees C pending analysis. Analyses were performed on a gas chromatograph-mass selective detector for the presence of parent compound and/or metabolites. Diethylstilbestrol and its metabolite, dienestrol, were detected in urine; dienestrol only for 1 day but diethylstilbestrol for 8 days after administration. Residue analysis for the use of diethylstilbestrol as growth promoter can be performed on the urine of ostriches by scanning for parent compound only since it can be detected longer than the metabolite.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Viruses and virus-like particles identified in ostrich gut contents.

Samples of either gut content from ostriches showing symptoms of enteritis, or allantoic fluid of eggs inoculated with ostrich isolates, were examined for the presence of viral agents by direct negative-contrast electron microscopy. Only a few virus types could be identified with certainty, namely a circovirus (1 sample), a coronavirus (1 sample), a member of either the toga- or bunyaviridae (1 sample), enterovirus (16 samples) and paramyxovirus (26 samples). A large number of samples contained structures resembling myxovirus particles that were interpreted as fringed membranous particles of non-viral origin. An unusual observation of probable single-strand nucleocapsid helices, possibly originating from digested plant material and which were identified in a number of small intestine samples, is reported. This is the 1st report of a spectrum of viruses and virus-like particles occurring in enteric samples from ostriches in South Africa. The low incidence and variety of viruses reported here contribute to the multifactorial origin and complexity of enteric disease in ostriches as well as in other birds and mammalian species.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Ultrastructural characteristics of ostrich eggshell: outer shell membrane and the calcified layers.

The ultrastructure of the eggshell of the domestic hen has been well researched and structural studies of other avian species, such as the ostrich, often base their interpretation of egg shell structure on that of the chicken. In the ostrich, lowered hatchability and hatching trauma may be due to shell ultrastructural abnormalities. In the present study the ultrastructure of the calcified portion, and the outer shell membrane (OSM), of domesticated ostrich eggshells was investigated using standard electron microscopic techniques. Transmission and scanning electron microscopy studies demonstrated intimate contact between cup-shaped structures present on the OSM and the mammillary layer of the calcified portion of the shell. The initial calcium carbonate growth of the calcified shell was of a dendritic nature with nucleation sites on the surface of the cup's contents. The dendritic growth gave way to a more randomly-orientated, smaller crystallite growth structure, which changed in form as it neared the vertical crystal layer (VCL). The VCL is described as being both amorphous and 'crumbly' depending on the plane of fracture. These observations suggest that firstly, initial calcification is contained within the cups and is then directed outwards to form the shell and that secondly, the VCL may contain an evolutionary, calcified cuticular layer. These observations serve as a baseline for studies investigating the effect of shell structure and strength on hatchling trauma and the influence of maternal diet.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Biochemical composition of urine from farmed ostriches (Struthio camelus) in Botswana.

Biochemical and qualitative evaluation of the supernatant of urine from hydrated farmed ostriches (Struthio camelus) indicated that the urine was comparable to that described by other workers. The disparities obtained between the biochemical constituents in the present and previous studies were partly attributed to the state of hydration influenced by climatic factors. Results of the cytological examination of the supernatant and the sediment concurred with the observations of other workers. It was therefore concluded that parameters from both the quantitative and qualitative analyses could be used as a guideline to monitor the health status of farmed ostriches in Botswana.

Animal Welfare↗
PubMed2001

Factors related to high levels of ostrich chick mortality from hatching to 90 days of age in an intensive rearing system.

Ostrich chick mortality was studied in 2522 chicks that were hatched artificially during the 1999/2000 breeding season. High levels of mortality were observed, with 1978 (78.4 %) of these chicks dying before 90 days after hatching. A total of 46.7 % (1,177) of these chicks died before 28 days of age, and a further 30.7% (801) died between 28 and 90 days post-hatching. Chick mortality to 28 days of age could not be conclusively related to sex, day of external pipping or breeder diet. Mortality rates were higher (P< 0.05) at the beginning and end of the breeding season than in the middle months. Differences in mortality levels of chicks incubated in different incubators could be related to the time of the breeding season during which the incubator was mostly used. The regression of chick mortality to 28 days of age on day-old chick mass followed a 2nd-degree polynomial. Chicks with day-old masses below 762.5 g were particularly at risk of dying before 28 days after hatching. Chicks hatching from eggs where excessive water loss to 35 days of incubation (>18%) was recorded were also at risk of succumbing before 28 days of age. Chick mortality percentages for the period from 28 to 90 days of age exceeded 80 % in chicks weighing an average of 1.050 g at 28 days. Mortality percentages declined sharply at higher live masses, to between 20 and 30 % in chicks weighing > or = 1,950 g. This 'core' level of mortality remained throughout, even in the heaviest chicks. It was concluded that the high levels of chick mortality could be related to stress in chicks, resulting from an inability to adapt to the rearing environment. The high subsequent mortality percentages of low live mass chicks that survived to 28 days after hatching could probably be attributed to residual setbacks suffered earlier. Abetter understanding of the underlying principles involved in ostrich chick mortality in intensive rearing environments is required for progress in this field, resulting in more predictable survival rates under these conditions.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2001

Radiographic anatomy of the thoraco-abdominal cavity of the ostrich (Struthio camelus).

This study provides a reference for the radiographic anatomy of the thoraco-abdominal cavity of female ostriches as a representative of ratites. One ostrich cadaver, 2 adult and 2 growing ostriches were used. Right lateral radiographs produced by a 6-frame technique and 2 dorsoventral radiographs produced by an adapted 3-frame technique were selected and schematic illustrations of these were labelled to illustrate normal radiographic anatomy. Differences from other avian species and unique features of the ostrich are briefly discussed.

Abdomen↗
PubMed2002

Morphological and histochemical observations of the organic components of ostrich eggshell.

The organic component of the avian eggshell can be divided into 3 portions, the shell membranes, the matrix and the cuticle. These have been well characterised in the chicken but little has been published with regard to the ostrich (Struthio camelus). A number of recent studies have indicated that the cause of intra-shell embryonic deaths in the ostrich is similar to intra-shell embryonic deaths that occur in the chicken. These deaths in the chicken are associated with the loss of or damage to the waxy cuticle and other organic components of the eggshell, which is reported to be absent in the ostrich eggshell. In this study, preliminary morphological and histochemical analyses, at the level of the light and electron microscope, have characterised the various organic components of the ostrich eggshell. The results of the histochemical and electron microscopical analyses suggest that there may only be 1 shell membrane in this species, which could play a major role in the limitation of bacterial penetration to the embryonic chamber The shell membrane has a distinct elemental profile as determined by EDS analysis. The matrix is shown to decrease in mesh size from the mammillary layer to the vertical crystal layer. The closer packing of the mesh may indicate the presence of a morphologically discernible termination signal to calcification or the remnants of an evolutionary calcified cuticle. The matrix of the pores may also form a defensive barrier against bacterial invasion, which could be damaged as a result of dipping the eggs before incubation.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

Preliminary results on the use of diagnostic ultrasonography as a management tool to quantify egg production potential in breeding ostrich (Struthio camelus australis) females.

An ostrich breeding flock, joined as individual breeding pairs (n = 136 pairs), was used to investigate the possibility of diagnostic ultrasonography as a method to predict the reproductive performance of ostrich females during a breeding season. Follicular activity was easily detected and quantified by using diagnostic ultrasonography. One to 8 follicles were recorded in 25% of females scanned at the beginning of the 9-month breeding season. At the end of the breeding season, 1-3 follicles were observed in 28.7% females. Females in which follicular activity was observed came into production earlier than those in which no follicles were observed, with the mean (+/- SE) number of days to the production of the 1st egg being 22.3 +/- 12.5 and 87.4 +/- 7.2 days, respectively. Females in which follicular activity was observed at the beginning of the breeding season, produced on average 181% more eggs during the 1st month of the breeding season (P < 0.01) than females in which no follicular activity was observed (6.67 +/- 0.70 vs 2.37 +/- 0.41 eggs). Egg production over the first 2 months of breeding and over the entire breeding season were similarly affected (P < 0.01), with the mean number of eggs produced over the first 2 months of the breeding season being 14.7 +/- 1.5 for females with observed follicular activity and 7.4 +/- 0.9 eggs for females with no observed follicular activity. Females in which follicular activity was observed at the end of the breeding season produced on average 108% more eggs (P < 0.01) during the last month of the breeding season than females in which no follicular activity was observed (2.77 +/- 0.43 vs. 1.33 +/- 0.27 eggs). There was a tendency (P = 0.06) for egg production over the last 2 months to be similarly affected (6.10 +/- 0.85 vs 4.19 +/- 0.54 eggs). No relationship with egg production over the entire breeding season was found for the end-of-the-breeding-season observations. Diagnostic ultrasonography can thus be used as a management tool to identify reproductively healthy ostrich females and also females with a higher egg production potential over a period of 2 months after or prior to assessment. Future studies should focus on the development of the technique to predict reproductive performance over entire breeding seasons for selection purposes.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

A note on endoparasites of wild ostriches (Struthio camelus) in the Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Gaborone, Botswana.

A study was undertaken to investigate the prevalence of endoparasites of wild ostriches at Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Gaborone, over a 7-month period. Large numbers of strongyle eggs were recovered from faecal material in April and September and a decline in the strongyle egg counts was evident during June and July. Noteworthy was the absence of helminth eggs in faecal samples collected from chicks and coccidia oocysts from any of the ostriches.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

The presence of quill mites (Gabucinia bicaudata) and lice (Struthiolipeurus struthionis) in ostrich wing feathers.

Quill mites (Gabucinia bicaudata) and lice (Struthiolipeurus struthionis) may infest ostrich feathers, resulting in skin damage, pruritus and excessive feather preening and loss. Four different feather types (prime white, femina extra wide, femina class 1, and femina short; n = 10) were collected. The quill mites and lice were removed with fine forceps, studied using a photographic optical microscope and counted microscopically at x 100 magnification following collection by sedimentation. They were placed in separate Petri dishes containing lactophenol solution and examined (x40 magnification). Anatomical features are described. The density of quill mites in all feather types of both wings was higher than that of the lice. There was no significant difference between the counts of both arthropods on the left wing and the right wing, respectively, except for the femina class 1 quill mites (P = 0.01). The femina extra wide feathers were a preferred habitat in both wings. Large standard deviations (quill mites left wing: 73 +/- 8; quill mites right wing: 69 +/- 7) suggested variations in the degree of migration between feather shafts or as a response to escape preening. It is recommended that ostriches be treated with an oral preparation of Ivermectin administered per os at a dosage rate of 0.2 mg/kg at 30-day intervals for quill mites, and with a 1-5 % Malathion dust at 14-day intervals for lice.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Immunoreactivities to protein gene product 9.5, neurofilament protein and neuron specific enolase in nerves in the oviduct of the sexually immature ostrich, Struthio camelus.

The present study investigated the distribution of nerves in the oviduct of the sexually immature ostrich. The presence of protein gene product 9.5, neurofilament protein and neuron specific enolase nerve fibres were demonstrated in the infundibulum, magnum, isthmus, shell gland and vagina. Nerve fibres containing protein gene product 9.5, neuron specific enolase and neurofilament protein were particularly numerous in the tunica muscularis and intermuscular connective tissue areas of the shell gland and vagina. The presence of a large number of nerves in these oviductal regions is probably important in the coordination of muscle contraction. An interesting finding of the study was the presence of protein gene product 9.5 and neuron specific enolase immunopositive nerve fibres in the walls of blood vessels. It is likely that these nerves are autonomicin nature and play a role in the regulation of blood flow. This study has shown the presence of an extensive neural network in the oviduct of the ostrich. In addition, the results of the investigation have shown that the neuronal markers protein gene product 9.5, neurofilament protein and neuron specific enolase can be used to demonstate nerve fibres in the ostrich.

Animals↗