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PubMed1995

Male and female health problems in general practice: the differential impact of social position and social roles.

Sex, social position and social roles have been identified as important health predictors. Moreover, various social variables have been found to bear differently upon female as compared to male health. This study analyses data from a large-scale registration project in general practice (the Continuous Morbidity Registration), pertaining to the medical diagnoses of nearly 10,000 patients over a five year period. The effects of sex, social class, marital and parental status on a number of distinct categories of health problems were established, and a possible differential impact of social position and social roles on male and female health was explored. Categories of health problems studied were 'overall health problems', 'sex specific conditions', 'symptoms without disease', 'prevention and diagnostics' and 'trauma'. Sex and, above all, social class were identified as important predictors of most categories of health problems, especially during the reproductive period of life. Marital status and parental status did not contribute substantially to most types of health problems. Rates of prevention and diagnostics, sex specific conditions and total number of health problems could to a certain extent be predicted by the four sociodemographic variables, as opposed to trauma rates and symptoms without disease rates. Social class appeared the only variable with a substantially different effect on male vs female rates of sex specific conditions, prevention and diagnostics and trauma, but not so for overall health problems and symptoms without disease. Marital status and parental status did not differ significantly in their effect on male vs female health. Results illustrate that differentiation of the health variable into categories of health problems elucidates the relationship between sex, social variables and health.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Communication and social skills in socially anxious and nonanxious individuals in the context of romantic relationships.

This study examined differences between socially anxious and nonanxious individuals' ability to use effective communication skills and social skills in the context of romantic relationships. Socially anxious (n = 13) and nonanxious (n = 14) individuals and their romantic partners were videotaped while participating in 10-minute neutral, negative, and pleasant conversations. Regardless of the type of conversation in which they were involved, socially anxious individuals demonstrated impairment in 10 of the 11 social skill variables assessed. In negative conversations, socially anxious individuals displayed more "very negative" behaviors than nonanxious individuals, and across all conversations they displayed fewer "positive" behaviors than nonanxious individuals. Partners of socially anxious and nonanxious individuals did not differ in their communication quality. The results suggest that social anxiety is associated with deficits in relationship maintenance behavior and call for the completion of a larger study examining the interpersonal consequences of social anxiety.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Effects of long-term estrogen replacement on social investigation and social memory in ovariectomized C57BL/6 mice.

Estrogen has been shown to play a role in modulating social recognition memory. However, the literature regarding the influence of estrogen on social memory is sparse and only covers two experimental manipulations: acute injections and receptor knockout. Long-term effects of estrogen replacement on social investigation and social recognition are unknown. Furthermore, existing social recognition protocols focus on memory of very short durations (<2 h). In the present study, we examined long-term effects of estrogen replacement on both short- (<30 min) and long-term (24 h) social recognition in ovariectomized female C57BL/6 mice by implanting 60-day time-release pellets containing physiological doses of estradiol (0, 0.18, or 0.72 mg of 17beta-estradiol). After 55 days of treatment, evidence of social recognition memory, measured by 24-h habituation, was found only in mice receiving the 0.72-mg pellet. This result is remarkable as previous reports indicate that individually-housed untreated rats and mice do not show habituation beyond 2 h. Our study further revealed that estrogen also increased frequencies of baseline social investigation without affecting general activity levels and decreased delayed post-swim-stress serum corticosterone concentration. Thus, these results suggest that long-term estrogen replacement increased the interest in social interaction as well as decreased stress responses. It is likely that the 24-h habituation observed in the estrogen replacement group is mediated jointly by the non-mnemonic effects of estrogen on the behavior displayed during the stage of memory encoding as well as mnemonic effects during the stage of memory consolidation.

Animals↗
PubMed2002

The primate amygdala and the neurobiology of social behavior: implications for understanding social anxiety.

The amygdala has long been implicated in the mediation of emotional and social behaviors. Because there are very few human subjects with selective bilateral damage of the amygdala, much of the evidence for these functional associations has come from studies employing animal subjects. Macaque monkeys live in complex, highly organized social groups that are characterized by stable and hierarchical relationships among individuals who engage in complex forms of social communication, such as facial expressions. Understanding the role of the amygdala in animals that display a level of social sophistication approaching that of humans will help in understanding the amygdala's role in human social behavior and in psychopathology such as social anxiety. Selective bilateral lesions of the amygdala in mature macaque monkeys result in a lack of fear responses to inanimate objects and a "socially uninhibited" pattern of behavior. These results imply that the amygdala functions as a protective "brake" on engagement of objects or organisms while an evaluation of potential threat is carried out. They also suggest that social anxiety may be a dysregulation or hyperactivity of the amygdala's evaluative process. Finally, recent data from developmental studies raise the possibility that, at least at some developmental stages, fear in social contexts may be subserved by different brain regions than fear of inanimate objects.

Amygdala↗
PubMed2003

Investments in social capital--implications of social interactions for the production of health.

This paper develops a theoretical model of the family as producer of health- and social capital. There are both direct and indirect returns on the production and accumulation of health- and social capital. Direct returns (the consumption motives) result since health and social capital both enhance individual welfare per se. Indirect returns (the investment motives) result since health capital increases the amount of productive time, and social capital improves the efficiency of the production technology used for producing health capital. The main prediction of the theoretical model is that the amount of social capital is positively related to the level of health; individuals with high levels of social capital are healthier than individuals with lower levels of social capital, ceteris paribus. An empirical model is estimated, using a set of individual panel data from three different time periods in Sweden. We find that social capital is positively related to the level of health capital, which supports the theoretical model. Further, we find that the level of social capital (1) declines with age, (2) is lower for those married or cohabiting, and (3) is lower for men than for women.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1999

[Social competence in children with social adjustment disorders].

Teachers and parents of a sample of 1774 students at three grade levels (4th, 6th and 8th grades) were asked to judge the social competence of the children by means of the social competence questionnaire by Buhrmester et al. (1988). These ratings were correlated with the social status of the pupils, with peer statements on aggressive behavior and victimization and with the teachers' ratings of behavior in class and towards fellow pupils. Teachers proved to be more critical than parents, crediting boys with less social competence than girls, though this difference diminished in the higher grades. Ratings of social competence differed significantly both with regard to respective social status, as well as to frequent involvement in aggressive disputes as reported by peers. Children rated by the teachers as hyperactive were no less socially competent than aggressive or aggressive-hyperactive children. Victims of peer aggression and particularly shy and withdrawn children were rated the least socially competent by parents and teachers. Implications for the training of the social skills of children with peer relationship problems are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Social construction of the managerialism of needs assessment by health and social care professionals.

Managerialism in community care has not only radically changed organisational structures delivering care, but the assessment of health and social care needs, the justifications for the assessments, and the experience of those who require publicly funded services. The present paper describes the social construction of the managerialism of needs assessment by health and social care professionals, and illustrates this through the identification of older people as a particular kind of client. The argument draws on 'third way', modernity and postmodernity thinking to show needs assessment as a socially constructed area of welfare. The empirical work in this study is based on the views of 38 health and social care professionals obtained by semi-structured in-depth interviews and a postal questionnaire. The views of these professionals show that the social construction of needs assessment takes place in managing the matching of eligibility criteria against types of services. The key to this process is the application of the concept of management that places health and social care professionals in roles where they are acting for state, voluntary or private agencies, and not in all contexts working together with older people. The study shows that professionals identify older people into two groups or 'classes', i.e. those having health needs as distinct from those with social care. The techniques used amount to an exercise of power by professionals over older people. Change is necessary to break down the dominance by professionals in the needs assessment process. A broader concept of the 'third way' vision by Giddens (1998) is also required to achieve greater relevance to how health and social care is organised, and how relations between professionals and older people are integrated into the idea and practice of participatory care. Therefore, the emancipatory side of modernity remains a largely unfinished project.

Aged↗
PubMed1999

Social support and unsupportive social interactions: their association with depression among people living with HIV.

Although numerous studies of people living with HIV have focused on positive social support, researchers have directed surprisingly little attention to the nature and effects of negative social interactions in this population. Based on data from a diverse sample of people with HIV (N = 271), we conducted a factor analysis to develop the HIV version of the Unsupportive Social Interactions Inventory (USII). Four types of unsupportive or upsetting responses that an HIV-positive person might receive from others were identified: insensitivity, disconnecting, forced optimism and blaming. In analysis with a sub-sample of 96 people with HIV, unsupportive social interactions were only moderately correlated with social support, suggesting that these constructs are relatively independent. Using hierarchical regression analysis, we found that unsupportive social interactions predicted a significant amount of the variance in depression, beyond the variance accounted for by physical functioning and positive social support. Partial correlations indicated that the relationship between unsupportive social interactions and depression was not an artifact of trait negative affectivity. Favourable evidence of the USII's reliability and validity suggests that the instrument provides a useful tool for assessing unsupportive social interactions experienced by people with HIV. Practical implications of the findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2006

Reliability and validity of The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT): a clinical test of social perception.

PURPOSE: The Awareness of Social Inference Test (TASIT) is an audiovisual tool designed for the clinical assessment of social perception with alternate forms for re-testing. Part 1 assesses emotion recognition, Parts 2 and 3 assess the ability to interpret conversational remarks meant literally (i.e., sincere remarks and lies) or non-literally (i.e., sarcasm) as well as the ability to make judgments about the thoughts, intentions and feelings of speakers. This paper aims to examine TASIT's reliability and validity. METHOD: Some 32 adults with severe, chronic brain injuries were administered Form A twice, one week apart. 38 adults with brain injuries were readministered alternate forms over a period of 5 - 26 weeks. Construct validity was examined in subsets of a sample of 116 adults with brain injuries by relating TASIT performance to standard tests of neuropsychological function and specific social perception measures. RESULTS: Test-retest reliability ranged from 0.74 - 0.88. Alternate forms reliability ranged from 0.62 - 0.83. TASIT performance was associated with face perception, information processing speed and working memory. Socially relevant new learning and executive tasks were significantly associated with TASIT performance whereas non-social tasks showed little association. Social perception tasks such as Ekman photos and theory of mind stories were also associated. CONCLUSIONS: TASIT has adequate psychometric properties as a clinical test of social perception. It is not overly prone to practice effects and is reliable for repeat administrations. Performance on TASIT is affected by information processing speed, working memory, new learning and executive functioning, but the uniquely social material that comprises the stimuli for TASIT will provide useful insights into the particular difficulties people with clinical conditions experience when interpreting complex social phenomena.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The Turning Point Social Marketing National Excellence Collaborative: integrating social marketing into routine public health practice.

Social marketing can be an effective tool for achieving public health goals. Social marketing uses concepts from commercial marketing to plan and implement programs designed to bring about behavior change that will benefit individuals and society. Although social marketing principles have been used to address public health problems, efforts have been dominated by message-based, promotion-only strategies, and effective implementation has been hampered by both lack of understanding of and use of all of the components of a social marketing approach and lack of training. The Turning Point initiative's Social Marketing National Excellence Collaborative (SMNEC) was established to promote social marketing principles and practices to improve public health across the nation. After 4 years, the Collaborative's work has resulted in improved understanding of social marketing among participating members and the development of new tools to strengthen the social marketing skills among public health practitioners. The Collaborative has also made advances in incorporating and institutionalizing the practice of social marketing within public health in participating states.

Cooperative Behavior↗
PubMed2000

Exercise dependence, social physique anxiety, and social support in experienced and inexperienced bodybuilders and weightlifters.

OBJECTIVES: To investigate psychological correlates of exercise dependence in experienced and inexperienced bodybuilders and weightlifters. Secondary objectives included measuring social physique anxiety, bodybuilding identity, and social support among bodybuilders and weightlifters. METHODS: Thirty five experienced bodybuilders, 31 inexperienced bodybuilders, and 23 weightlifters completed the bodybuilding dependence scale, a bodybuilding version of the athletic identity measurement scale, the social physique anxiety scale, and an adapted version of the social support survey-clinical form. RESULTS: A between subjects multivariate analysis of variance was calculated on the scores of the three groups of lifters for the four questionnaires. Univariate F tests and follow up tests indicated that experienced bodybuilders scored significantly higher than inexperienced bodybuilders and weightlifters on bodybuilding dependence (p<0.001), social identity and exclusivity subscales of bodybuilding identity (p<0.001), and social support scales (p<.001), and significantly lower on social physique anxiety (p<0.001). CONCLUSION: Experienced bodybuilders exhibit more exercise dependence, show greater social support behaviour, and experience less social physique anxiety than inexperienced bodybuilders and weightlifters.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Prospective study of attainment of social class of severely obese subjects in relation to parental social class, intelligence, and education.

Cross sectional population studies have shown that subjects who are severely obese are of lower social class than comparable subjects who are not obese. This may be ascribed to lower parental social class, poorer education, and lower intelligence test scores of the obese subjects. In this study based on 242 633 draftees appearing before the draft board in Copenhagen between 1956 and 1977, 1144 extremely overweight men (body mass index greater than or equal to 31 kg/m2) were compared with 2123 young men randomly chosen from the remainder of the population. The two groups were followed up for an average period of 12 X 5 years, after which time their occupation was obtained from the National Population Register. Social class was derived from a ranking of occupations based on prestige from 0 (unskilled, manual worker) to 7 (for example, judge, professor). Among the obese subjects, only 300 (30%) out of 1006 attained a position above social class 2, compared with 988 (51%) out of 1948 in the control group. At each level of education and intelligence test score, as registered at the draft board, the obese subjects still showed a significantly lower attainment of social class than the controls. Inclusion of parental social class, information which was available for part of the population, did not eliminate the difference in attainment of social class. The results of this study show that obese subjects not only suffer from a higher risk of somatic diseases but have to live with a social handicap that is independent of parental social class, intelligence, and education.

Educational Status↗
PubMed2006

Job control, job demands, or social class? The impact of working conditions on the relation between social class and health.

BACKGROUND: The aim of the study was to investigate (1) how much of the association between health and social class is accounted by psychosocial working conditions, and (2) whether health is related to working conditions after controlling for social class. METHODS: The data derive from the surveys of the Helsinki health study, collected in 2000, 2001, and 2002 from 40-60 year old employees working for the City of Helsinki (n=8970, response rate 67%). The study measured occupation based social class and Karasek's demand-control model. The health outcomes were self rated health as less than good and limiting longstanding illness. Age adjusted prevalence percentages and fitted logistic regression models were calculated. RESULTS: The individual effects of social class and psychosocial working conditions on self rated health and limiting longstanding illness were strong among both men and women. The relation between social class and both health outcomes considerably attenuated when job control was controlled for, but was reinforced when controlling for job demands. Controlling for both job control and job demands attenuated the relation between social class and self rated health and limiting longstanding illness among women, however, was reinforced among men. CONCLUSIONS: A substantial part of the relation between social class and health could be attributed to job control, however, job demands reinforced the relation. Although the effect of social class is mediated by psychosocial working conditions, both social class and working conditions were related to health after mutual adjustments.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Differentiated roles of social encouragement and social constraint on physical activity behavior.

BACKGROUND: Social support is, in general, positively associated with exercise behavior. However, social influence may not always be helpful and may sometimes lead to obligation or a sense of intrusion rather than encouragement or assistance. PURPOSE: The objective was to determine relationships among different types of social influence (social encouragement and social constraint) and exercise motivation and exercise behavior. METHOD: Structural equation modeling was used to investigate relationships among exercise and social influence variables. RESULTS: A model was found to fit the data well in which social encouragement had an indirect association with exercise behavior through motivational variables. Social constraint was associated with only one aspect of exercise motivation--"have to", or obligatory, commitment--and had no direct or indirect association with exercise behavior. CONCLUSIONS: These findings emphasize the importance of social influences that promote desirable behaviors in contrast to those that pose constraints on the failure to perform desirable behaviors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Treatment of social behavior in autism through the modification of pivotal social skills.

We examined acquisition of individual social communicative behaviors and generalization across other social behaviors in 2 children with autism. The results of a multiple baseline design showed that the children's treated social behaviors improved rapidly and that there were generalized changes in untreated social behaviors. These improvements were accompanied by increases in subjective ratings of the overall appropriateness of the children's social interactions. The results suggest the possibility of identifying pivotal response classes of social communicative behavior that may facilitate the understanding of social behavior in autism as well as improve peer interactions, social integration, and social development.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Social networks and methadone treatment outcome: the costs and benefits of social ties.

OBJECTIVE: This study assessed the impact of social ties on substance abuse treatment outcome. Two models which predict alternative hypotheses were evaluated. 1) Based on the self-medication model, it was hypothesized that social support would aid in coping with painful affect and decrease the need for drugs. 2) Based on a social learning model, it was hypothesized that drug use in the social network would threaten abstinence due to modeling and conditioning effects. METHOD: Seventy methadone maintenance patients were given baseline measures of mood, stress, social support, and drug use in the network and followed prospectively for 3 months with weekly urine drug screens. RESULTS: Social support was correlated with positive affect (r = .59, p < .001), and stress with negative affect (r = .46, p < .001), but no measures of social support, affect, or stress correlated with the proportion of drug positive urines. However, patients with at least one drug user among the closest significant others had 63 +/- 38% positive urines versus 35 +/- 36% positive among those without a drug-using significant other (t = -3.2, p < .002). CONCLUSIONS: Substance use in the social network had a substantial negative impact on treatment outcome. Consistent with the social learning model and the traditional "persons, places, and things," this suggests interventions should get drug-using significant others into treatment and teach patients coping skills to reduce their negative influence.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The school as social context: social interaction patterns of children with physical disabilities.

OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this study was to investigate the characteristics of the school social environment experienced by children with physical disabilities and the social interactional characteristics of children with physical disabilities in the school environment. The goal was to understand the interactive processes that support or inhibit these children's social interactions. METHOD: Naturalistic observation and participant interviews were used to collect data on social interaction patterns of three children with physical disabilities 5 to 8 years of age who were enrolled in age-appropriate regular education classrooms. Descriptive codes were obtained through constant comparative analysis. RESULTS: Four themes were identified that characterized aspects of the social environment affecting the social interactions of children with disabilities: reciprocity, characteristics of social and play interactions, effects of adult involvement, and quality of occupational engagement. CONCLUSION: The study supports the need for occupational therapists to focus intervention on multiple aspects of the social environment to facilitate children's socialization.

Child↗
PubMed1981

Social planning orientations: exercises in compliance or planned social change?

The author presents the idea that the established conceptual bases for the practice of social planning no longer apply to the circumstances that define the current planning environment. The idea is based on the observation that the practice of social planning in the public sector is primarily an exercise in complying with prescribed protocols and regulations in order to legitimize the expenditure of funds for social programs. The observation is derived from experience with four major social planning programs: Area Agencies on Aging; Community Action Programs; State Social Service (Title XX) Agencies; and Health Systems Agencies. Common experiences in these agencies suggest the need for an additional orientation to planning. A negotiated-operational orientation that is more closely aligned to the environmental conditions of the social planning experiences is described. The ability of the social planner to use this orientation as an additional frame of reference is seen as a key factor determining whether compliance or social change will be a dominant characteristic of social planning in the 1980s.

Health Planning↗