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PubMed1987

Federal financial participation in state assistance expenditures; federal matching shares for aid to families with dependent children, Medicaid, and aid to needy aged, blind, or disabled persons for October 1, 1988 through September 30, 1989--HHS. Notice.

The Federal Percentages and Federal Medical Assistance Percentages for Fiscal Year 1989 have been calculated pursuant to the Social Security Act (the Act). These percentages will be effective from October 1, 1988 through September 30, 1989. This notice announces the calculated "Federal percentages" and "Federal medical assistance percentages" that we will use in determining the amount of Federal matching in State welfare and medical expenditures. The table gives figures for each of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Title XIX of the Act exists in each jurisdiction, title IV-A in all jurisdictions except American Samoa and the Northern Mariana Islands, titles I, X, and XIV operate only in Guam and the Virgin Islands, while title XVI (AABD) operates only in Puerto Rico. The percentages in this notice apply to State expenditures for assistance payments and medical services (except family planning which is subject to a higher matching rate). The statute provides separately for Federal matching of administrative costs. Sections (1101(a)(8) and 1905(b) of the Act, as revised by section 9528 of Pub. L. 99-272, require the Secretary of Health and Human Services to publish these percentages each year. The Secretary is to figure the percentages, by formulas in sections 1101(a)(8) and 1905(b) of the Act, from the Department of Commerce's statistics of average income per person in each State and in the Nation as a whole. The percentages are within upper and lower limits given in those two sections of the Act.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aid to Families with Dependent Children↗
PubMed1989

Federal financial participation in state assistance expenditures; federal matching shares for aid to needy aged, blind, or disabled persons for October 1, 1990 through September 30, 1991--HHS. Notice.

The Federal Percentages and Federal Medical Assistance Percentages for Fiscal Year 1991 have been calculated pursuant to the Social Security Act (the Act). These percentages will be effective from October 1, 1990 through September 30, 1991. This notice announces the calculated "Federal percentages" and "Federal medical assistance percentages" that we will use in determining the amount of Federal matching in State welfare and medical expenditures. The table gives figures for each of the 50 States, the District of Columbia, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, Guam, American Samoa, and the Northern Mariana Islands. Programs under title XIX of the Act exist in each jurisdiction; title IV-A programs in all jurisdictions except American Samoa and the Northern Mariana Islands; programs under titles I, X, and XIV operate only in Guam and the Virgin Islands; while a program under title XVI (AABD) operates only in Puerto Rico. The percentages in this notice apply to State expenditures for assistance payments and medical services (except family planning which is subject to a higher matching rate). The statute provides separately for Federal matching of administrative costs. Sections 1101(a)(8) and 1905(b) of the Act, as revised by section 9528 of Pub. L. 99-272, require the Secretary of Health and Human Services to publish these percentages each year. The secretary is to figure the percentages, by formulas in sections 1101(a)(8) and 1905(b) of the Act, from the Department of Commerce's statistics of average income per person in each State and in the Nation as a whole. The percentages are within upper and lower limits, given in those two sections of the Act.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Aged↗
PubMed1992

Socioeconomic impacts and management ciguatera in the Pacific.

The inshore fisheries resource is important to the health and culture of many of the inhabitants of Pacific Island countries (PIC). Ciguateric fishes (mainly demersal reef fishes) cause a range of distressing and often debilitating gastrointestinal neurological and cardiovascular disturbances. Consequently, ciguatera limits the utilisation of this otherwise over-exploited resource. For many victims, the symptoms suffered during the chronic phase of ciguatera (lasting weeks, months and occasionally years) are exacerbated upon consumption of certain foods, particularly non-toxic fishes. After each outbreak, victims and members of their social-network experience a transient increase in perception of the risk of eating reef fish. The impact of ciguatera is greatest in atoll island countries where fish is the primary source of protein (it also has a major impact and to facilitate the management of ciguatera in PIC, regular information is required that quantifies: (i) the true incidence of ciguatera; (ii) the extent and way in which different communities avoid ciguatera; and (iii) the adverse impact ciguatera has on health, the workforce, trade and tourism. Over the last 15 years (based on SPEHIS data to 1990), some countries recorded a decrease in the ciguatera problem (New Caledonia, Marshall Is.), other countries an increase (Kirbati, Tuvalu, French Polynesia), while still other countries recorded an increase followed by a decrease in ciguatera (Tokelau, American Samoa, Western Samoa, Fiji and Vanuatu). There may also be seasonal trends in the incidence of ciguatera in some countries e.g. Fiji. Management options presently implementable in PIC include: (i) treatment with i.v. mannitol; (ii) provision of timely advise on the location and status of ciguatera "hot spots" in each country that would allow affected communities to react objectively to the risk posed by ciguatera; and (iii) modification of human behaviour and aspirations to reduce the impact of increasing population, pollution and development (e.g. causeways) pressures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Cladogenesis as the result of long-distance rafting events in South Pacific topshells (Gastropoda, Trochidae).

We used DNA sequences of lecithotrophic monodontine topshells, belonging to the genera Diloma, Melagraphia, and Austrocochlea, to ascertain how this group became established over a large area of the South Pacific Ocean. The phylogeny of the topshells was estimated using portions of two mitochondrial genes (16S and cytochrome oxidase 1) and one nuclear gene (actin). A range of divergence rates was used to estimate the approximate timing of cladogenetic events within their phylogenetic tree. These estimates allow us to unambiguously reject vicariant explanations for several major divergence events and to infer several dispersal events across wide stretches of ocean. The first were two initial dispersal events from Australia (1) to an area between Samoa and Japan and (2) to New Zealand. Subsequently, at least one, and possibly two, recent eastward dispersals took place from New Zealand to Chile and the Juan Fernandez Islands, and one further dispersal occurred from somewhere in the tropical Pacific to Samoa. Moreover, owing to the short-lived nature of the topshell larvae, transoceanic larval dispersal is unlikely. The apparent paradox of a short larval phase and broad geographic range suggests that dispersal most probably occurred by rafting of adults on a suitable platform such as macroalgae; indeed, naturally buoyant bull kelp is the natural habitat of the most geographically widespread species in this group. Our molecular phylogenies imply that, despite of being an unlikely event, adult rafting in ocean currents has occurred on several occasions throughout the evolutionary history of topshells, resulting in their wide present-day distribution.

Actins↗
PubMed1966

Pulmonary calcification and skin sensitivities to tuberculin, histoplasmin and coccidioidin among Polynesians.

Pulmonary calcifications are fairly common in Western Samoa, but they cannot be attributed entirely to tuberculosis, since they are also produced by certain systemic mycoses and parasitic infestations. Furthermore, in many tropical areas, skin sensitivity to tuberculin is often due to certain unidentified weak sensitizing agents, rather than to the usual virulent tubercle bacilli.Skin sensitivity to histoplasmin and coccidioidin is absent in both Western Samoa and the Tokelau Islands; consequently, pulmonary calcifications found in these places cannot be attributed to either histoplasmosis or coccidioidomycosis.Both Western Samoans and Tokelauans exhibit non-specific reactions to tuberculin throughout their lives, but these reactions are clearer and more distinct in groups aged 15 years or more.The prevalence of non-specific sensitivity to tuberculin should be investigated further.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Polynesian mitochondrial DNAs reveal three deep maternal lineage clusters.

The 4000-year-old human population expansion into Remote Oceania has been studied from a variety of genetic perspectives. Here, we report the discovery that Polynesians, traditionally considered to be a single cohesive linguistic and cultural unit, exhibit at least three distinct mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) groups that probably shared a common maternal ancestor more than 85,000 years ago. The major lineage groups were first identified by PCR amplification of the mitochondrial region V deletion marker, known to be present at high frequency in Polynesian populations. Sequence analysis of mtDNA hypervariable control regions reveals a surprising number of lineages in Polynesia. We also note high sequence divergence between lineage groups deleted and not deleted in region V. Major group I lineages are common in Remote Oceania and include about 95% of the Native Hawaiian, 90% of the Samoan, and 100% of the Tongan donors in our sample. They contain the region V deletion and generally share three control region transition substitutions. This group also contains non-Polynesian individuals, such as Indonesians, Native Americans, Micronesians, Malaysians, Japanese, and Chinese. The group I Polynesians differ by 4.4% in sequence identity from major lineage group II Polynesians, who do not have the region V deletion and who share among themselves four distinct single-base substitutions. Group II individuals are seen at low frequency (< 10%) in Hawaii, Samoa, and the Cook Islands and may represent the predominant maternal lineage group of Papuan Melanesia. Major lineage group III, not found in Hawaii, tentatively links Samoa to Indonesia. Our observation of deep maternal genetic branches in Polynesia today confirms the notion that during the colonization of the Pacific, mainland Asian immigrants mixed with Melanesian peoples already inhabiting Near Oceania and carried a complex assortment of maternal genotypes derived from two distinct geographic sources to isolated island archipelagoes.

Base Sequence↗
PubMed1984

The body build and composition of Samoan children: relationships to infant feeding patterns and infant weight-for-length status.

The relationships between infant feeding patterns, infant weight status, and subsequent growth are not yet firmly established. This study attempts to address these topics among Samoan children. The study population consists of 1,186 children born between October 1974 and September 1976 who were subsequently seen in the Well Baby Clinic in American Samoa. On the basis of the clinic records the children were categorized into feeding groups (breast vs. bottle) and weight-for-length groups (less than 25th percentile or greater than 75th percentile of National Center for Health Statistics ( NCHS ) standards). A survey of 74 of these children was conducted in 1982. The average age of the children was 6.6 years. Twenty anthropometric measurements were taken and divided into three groups: skeletal, adipose, and mixed. Multiple analysis of variance was used on each of the groups of measurements to assess effects of infant feeding and weight-for-length. This analysis demonstrated significant relationships between infant weight-for-length and childhood skeletal size (heavy infants are larger children); between infant feeding patterns and childhood adiposity (bottle-fed children are fatter); and between both infant patterns and the mixed measurements (heavy and bottle-fed infants are heavier children with larger circumferences). The relationship between infant weight-for-length and skeletal size may be a continuation of infant patterns of high musculoskeletal weight in heavy infants. The relationship between infant feeding and childhood fatness was not affected by family income.

Birth Weight↗
PubMed1997

Social status, social context, and arterial blood pressure.

As social change and economic development have proceeded, the prevalence of chronic diseases, especially cardiovascular diseases, has increased in the developing world. In part this is due to the adoption of diets and other health behaviors characteristics of industrialized nations; in part it is a function of changing social and economic circumstances. In this paper, we describe the development and testing of a model designed to account for social and economic effects on cardiovascular disease risk. The model incorporates the fact that global economic processes have made a lifestyle characterized by the consumption of Euroamerican material goods and information a basis for the assignment of social status in local communities. But economic change at the local level is rarely sufficient to provide a foundation for individuals' status aspirations. Hence, many individuals attempt to maintain lifestyle inconsistent with their economic standing, a variable we term lifestyle incongruity. Here we described how this factor is associated with higher blood pressure in a variety of settings and also how the effects of lifestyle incongruity can be modified in local contexts by social class and social role processes. This latter process, contextual modification, is illustrated by data from American Samoa. In this example, the association of lifestyle incongruity with blood pressure is examined in 30 male household heads and 26 spouses. After an examination of Samoan ethnography focused attention on the importance of age and gender differences as defining social contexts of intracultural variation, the model was modified to assess interactions between age and gender as they affect the association of lifestyle incongruity and blood pressure. Lifestyle incongruity is strongly associated with higher systolic and diastolic blood pressure for the younger household heads, minimally associated with blood pressure for older household heads, and only slightly associated with blood pressure of their spouses. The regression coefficients for the lifestyle incongruity by age by sex interaction term was significant at P < or = 0.01 for both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. The consistency of these results with expectations based on the ethnographic record is emphasized in the interpretation. We feel that the lifestyle incongruity model represents and empirically successful attempt to link global political-economic processes, local social structure, and biological outcomes.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Social context and psychosocial influences on blood pressure among American Samoans.

This study explores social and explores social and economic influences on health within a model formulated to address explicitly both individual and household level phenomena. Dressler's lifestyle incongruity model is used as a basis from which to predict the effects of intracultural contexts of variability on blood pressure. The sample for this survey consists of 134 Samoan men and women living in American Samoa. Based on previous experience and ethnographic sources, two key intracultural contexts were examined; gender, i.e., male-female differences in response to psychosocial stress, and household employment as indicated by whether or not both spouses in a household are employed. Our analysis indicates that lifestyle incongruity, defined as the difference between the material culture presented by a household and the economic resources of the family, is significantly associated with both systolic and diastolic blood pressure. Furthermore, males and females show opposite blood pressure associations with both lifestyle incongruity (male blood pressure increases with increasing incongruity while female blood pressure does not) and household employment (male blood pressure is higher when both spouses work but female blood pressure is lower).

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Anger expression and lifestyle incongruity interactions on blood pressure in Samoan adults.

Prior research on psychosocial stress and blood pressure (BP) in adult Samoans identified the separate influences of lifestyle incongruity and anger expression within the context of societal modernization. The objective of this cross-sectional study was to determine the interactions between lifestyle incongruity and anger expression on BP in 376 men and women 25-65 years of age from Samoa. Participants were randomly selected from nine villages. Body mass index (BMI) and BP were measured by standard techniques. Anger expression was measured with an adapted version of the Spielberger Inventory. Material lifestyle was assessed by inventory of household items, exposure to news media, and off-island travel. Occupation and education lifestyle incongruities were calculated by subtracting the standardized lifestyle scale from the standardized occupation and education scales, respectively. Two-factor analysis of variance models with interactions were estimated within specific subgroups, with age- and BMI-adjusted BP as outcomes. In women <40 years of age with a material lifestyle relatively lower than their educational rank, anger suppression is associated with higher adjusted systolic BP. In young men whose material lifestyle is relatively lower than their occupational rank, those who report frequent experiences of Samoan culture-specific anger feelings have higher adjusted diastolic BP. We hypothesize that among young women, the higher BP may be due to stress arising from both a normative proscription against emotional expression, and a mismatch between their relatively higher educational level and lower material lifestyle. For young men, higher BP levels may be attributed to expected donations of earnings to the extended family that exceed their own material lifestyle, in combination with more frequent Samoan-specific feelings of anger.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Community participation in mental health training.

In the Pacific, training in mental health counseling skills must be culturally sensitive, adapted to the needs and resources of the specific emerging island countries and involve community participants in all phases of the training. A context is developed for viewing mental health problems and needs in Micronesia and American Samoa. The paper highlights the process the trainer encounters in preparing the community for the training. The concept of community participation is developed and operationalized. A two-phased training model suggests one way to implement WHO's mandate for partnership and participation.

Community Mental Health Services↗
PubMed2001

Additional rep-encoding DNAs associated with banana bunchy top virus.

Banana bunchy top nanovirus (BBTV) has a multicomponent circular single-stranded DNA (cssDNA) genome consisting of at least six components. We have cloned, sequenced and analysed two additional cssDNA components, designated BBTV-S1 and S2, associated with a Taiwanese BBTV isolate. The sequences of BBTV-S1 and S2 comprised 1109 and 1095 nucleotides (nt), respectively, and like BBTV DNA-1, potentially encoded replication initiation proteins (Reps). However, the genome organisation of BBTV-S1 and S2 differed from that of BBTV DNA-1 in that (i) the stem sequence of the CR-SL was not conserved, (ii) the internal gene was absent and (iii) the probable TATA boxes were located 5' of the stem-loop. Further, sequence and phylogenetic analysis of the Rep genes indicated that BBTV DNA-S1 and S2 were distinct from BBTV DNA-1. When different geographical isolates of BBTV were tested for the presence of BBTV-S1/S2, these components were detected in various isolates from Vietnam, Taiwan, the Philippines, Tonga and Samoa but were not detected in isolates from Australia, Egypt, Fiji, and India. Based on these results, BBTV-S1 and S2 do not appear to be integral components of the BBTV genome and represent additional Rep-encoding DNAs associated with BBTV.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2006

A retrospective study of childhood gender-atypical behavior in Samoan fa'afafine.

Retrospective studies, mostly conducted in Western cultures, indicate that childhood cross-gender behaviors are strongly predictive of androphilia in adult men. To test the cross-cultural validity of these findings, we conducted a study of fa'afafine in Independent Samoa. Fa'afafine are a heterogeneous group of androphilic males, some of whom are unremarkably masculine, but most of whom behave in a feminine manner in adulthood. A total of 53 fa'afafine, 27 control men, and 24 control women participated. Participants were asked how often they engaged in female- and male-typical behaviors in childhood. Results demonstrated that fa'afafine and women recalled engaging in significantly more female-typical behaviors and significantly fewer male-typical behaviors in childhood compared to the men. Fa'afafine's recalled female-typical and male-typical behaviors did not differ significantly from those of women. These results suggest that the relationship in males between gender-atypical behavior in childhood and adult androphilia is not unique to Western societies and may be a cross-culturally universal pattern of psychosexual development shared by most males who are predominantly androphilic.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Assessment of mangrove response to projected relative sea-level rise and recent historical reconstruction of shoreline position.

We predict the decadal change in position of three American Samoa mangroves from analysis of a time series of remotely sensed imagery, a geographic information system, tide gauge data, and projections for change in sea-level relative to the mangrove surface. Accurate predictions of changes to coastal ecosystem boundaries, including in response to projected relative sea-level rise, enable advanced planning to minimize and offset anticipated losses and minimize social disruption and cost of reducing threats to coastal development and human safety. The observed mean landward migration of three mangroves' seaward margins over four decades was 25, 64, and 72 mma(-1), 12 to 37 times the observed relative sea-level rise rate. Two of the sites had clear trends in reductions in mangrove area, where there was a highly significant correlation between the change in position of the seaward mangrove margin and change in relative sea-level. Here it can be inferred that the force of sea-level rise relative to the mangrove surface is causing landward migration. Shoreline movement was variable at a third site and not significantly correlated with changing sea-level, where it is likely that forces other than change in relative sea-level are predominant. Currently, 16.5%, 23.4%, and 68.0% of the three mangroves' landward margins are obstructed by coastal development from natural landward migration. The three mangroves could experience as high as a 50.0% reduction in area by the year 2100. A 12% reduction in mangrove area by the year 2100 is possible in the Pacific islands region.

American Samoa↗
PubMed1994

Hearing loss in western Samoan children.

In an effort to help determine the current status and needs of hearing impaired children in Western Samoa, the Commonwealth Society for the Deaf sent a team of three professionals to this Pacific island nation in 1991. Initial information on known children with severe and profound hearing loss was gathered and a small prevalence survey of urban school children's ear health was conducted. No previously published information was available for this population. Results are presented and related to data from other areas of the Pacific. Hearing health care implications of the survey team's findings are discussed.

Child↗
PubMed1982

Biocultural risks in longevity: Samoans in California.

Because migration is such a widespread phenomenon, studies of the effects of accompanying life change on the health and well-being of the migrant have special significance in areas like California that support large migrant communities. Previous studies have shown that increased weight and elevated blood pressure may be linked to changes in diet, exercise habits, and the altered sociocultural milieu of the migrant. Among Samoans, a Pacific Island population of Polynesian descent, these changes appear to be particularly prominent in segments of the population that have moved to the environment of Hawaii, which epidemiologic studies have characterized as "intermediate-modern.' Preliminary findings from a survey of weight, height, blood pressure, fasting glucose levels, and mortality records among Samoans living in California indicate that individuals living under more highly urbanized conditions exhibit even more pronounced changes. Adult weight among Samoans in California (San Francisco) greatly exceeds that of their counterparts in Hawaii and Samoa. Elevated blood pressures are also seen, though the extent to which this is associated with excessive weight gain is unclear. The number of individuals with high (greater than or equal to 160 mg/dl) fasting plasma glucose levels would be consistent with a population in which the prevalence of diabetes is many times higher than in the U.S. population. Although mortality patterns are difficult to determine for this population, available records suggest an excess mortality from cardiovascular diseases of all types among adult Samoans under age 50. Further investigations will attempt to link biobehavioral changes in the migrants' lifestyle to these observed patterns of risk.

Adult↗
PubMed1986

Migration and biocultural adaptation: Samoans in California.

The consequences of migration for the Samoan population of California are discussed within the context of other studies focusing on Samoan native and migrant populations in Samoa and Hawaii. The social, cultural and economic characteristics of California Samoans are described and data are presented for body morphology, blood pressure, psychosocial stress and social support, general morbidity patterns and mortality rates for 1978-1982. Although the nature of disease risks appear profound in this population, particularly patterns of extreme obesity and psychosocial stress, mortality rates for heart disease and stroke are less than might be expected among other American groups. Such unexpectedly low mortality rates may represent the relatively healthy experience of older cohorts of migrants, or be a result of proportionally few individuals having lived long enough in California to develop cardiovascular and other chronic disease that have lengthy natural histories. We postulate that at present Samoan social structure, particularly the high status that accrues with aging in traditional Samoan society, may act as a buffer for the risk factors we observed and their expected outcomes. If so, the U.S.-born Samoans who are currently passing through childhood and early adult years with progressively less awareness of Samoan values of family and social structure will exhibit the same risks we describe here, but lack the available social buffers that currently exist for their parents.

Acculturation↗
PubMed1987

Variation in lifestyle characteristics and catecholamine excretion rates among young Western Samoan men.

Comparisons of 13 lifestyle characteristics and the rates of urinary catecholamine excretion during typical morning activity are examined among four groups of young Samoan men in Western Samoa. The groups include 28 manual laborers, 33 sedentary workers, and 31 college students from the urban area of Apia, and 31 rural agriculturalists. Associations between the lifestyle variables and catecholamine excretion rates are also investigated in the total sample (N = 123) using correlations and multiple stepwise regression techniques. Results of the lifestyle characteristic comparisons show that the villagers have greater life satisfaction, emotional stability, agreement with Samoan customs, and familial responsibility (P less than 0.05). The catecholamine comparisons show that the villagers have lower rates of epinephrine and norepinephrine excretion than any of the Apia groups (P less than 0.05 and P less than 0.005 respectively). The regressions indicate that diet, activity, day of specimen collection and the overall lifestyle and ecological differences between the village and Apia are associated with 25 and 31% of the variation in the rates of epinephrine and norepinephrine excretion respectively. These results suggest that both psychological and habitual behavioral differences contribute to the catecholamine variation of the men in this study, and that these differences are related to the degree of participation in Western lifestyles.

Adult↗