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PubMed1994

Infectious diseases associated with molluscan shellfish consumption.

A history of shellfish-vectored illnesses (i.e., those associated with consumption of clams, oysters, mussels, and scallops) occurring in the past nine decades is presented. Typhoid fever was a significant public health problem among consumers of raw molluscan shellfish earlier in this century. The development of more effective sewage treatment procedures and the institution of a national program following these outbreaks led to a series of measures which eventually eliminated shellfish-associated typhoid fever. Present-day problems associated with this food source still involve some wastewaterborne bacterial illnesses. However, the principal public health concerns are with wastewater-derived viral pathogens and with bacterial agents of an environmental origin. The nature, occurrence, and magnitude of these public health problems are described.

Communicable Diseases↗
PubMed1975

Paralytic shellfish poisoning in Papua New Guinea.

Paralytic shellfish poisoning is differentiated from other forms of poisioning from marine animals. An outbreak in a village near Port Moresby is described, and the clinical picture seen in that and subsequent cases (25 plus 3 fatalities) is discussed. The clinical manifestations of almost pure cerebellar incoordination, without other constant neurological signs, is emphasized and the name Ataxic Shellfish Poisoning is suggested. The aetiology whereby toxic marine plakton organisms are siphoned and filtered from the water and accumulate in shellfish is described.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

[The use of immunological methods for the detection of phycotoxin and shellfish toxin].

Harmful algae can do great harm to organisms even to human through food chain by accumulating in shellfish and fish or by themselves. The immunological examination technique is fast, easy and accurate even in trace amount of phycotoxin and shellfish toxin. The theory of immunological diagnosis as well as the prospect and defect of these methods and their application in phycotoxin and shellfish toxin determination are introduced. The method deserves spreading and using in routine monitoring program.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

A molecular method for the recovery and identification of enteric virus in shellfish.

In this paper we report the results of an investigation into the presence of enteric viruses in shellfish from the waters around Sardinia. Twenty two samples of shellfish were examined using a rapid and sensitive technique to concentrate and detect viral RNA in shellfish tissues. After recovery of viral particles, RNA was extracted, transcribed into cDNA and amplified using "nested PCR". Testing with enterovirus-specific RT-PCR produced positive results in over 13% of specimens. The virus detection procedure appears to be effective. In some circumstances it could be a better test of water quality than conventional monitoring techniques.

Bacteria↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Receptor binding assay for paralytic shellfish poisoning toxins: optimization and interlaboratory comparison.

A receptor binding assay (RBA) for detection of paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins was formatted for use in a high throughput detection system using microplate scintillation counting. The RBA technology was transferred from the National Ocean Service, which uses a Wallac TriLux 1450 MicroBeta microplate scintillation counter, to the California Department of Health Services, which uses a Packard TopCount scintillation counter. Due to differences in the detector arrangement between these 2 counters, markedly different counting efficiencies were exhibited, requiring optimization of the RBA protocol for the TopCount instrument. Precision, accuracy, and sensitivity [limit of detection = 0.2 microg saxitoxin (STX) equiv/100 g shellfish tissue] of the modified protocol were equivalent to those of the original protocol. The RBA robustness and adaptability were demonstrated by an interlaboratory study, in which STX concentrations in shellfish generated by the TopCount were consistent with MicroBeta-derived values. Comparison of STX reference standards obtained from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration and the National Research Council, Canada, showed no observable differences. This study confirms the RBA's value as a rapid, high throughput screen prior to testing by the conventional mouse bioassay (MBA) and its suitability for providing an early warning of increasing PSP toxicity when toxin levels are below the MBA limit of detection.

Amphibian Proteins↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Photostimulated luminescence detection of irradiated shellfish: international interlaboratory trial.

An interlaboratory trial was conducted to validate photostimulated luminescence (PSL) detection of irradiated shellfish. Five species of shellfish (Nephrops norvegicus, mussels, black tiger prawns, brown shrimps, and king scallops) were presented blind as nonirradiated and irradiated to 0.5 and 2.5 kGy. Precharacterization analysis of each product and treatment was performed on both whole (including shell) and intestinal samples. The results for whole samples (including shell) confirmed that the method was able to distinguish between nonirradiated and irradiated samples, regardless of dose. Intestinal data have identified that the method is dependent on the quantity and sensitivity of grits present within the intestinal tract, which can be assessed using calibration by normalization to 1 kGy. Five laboratories returned both initial screening and calibrated data and sample classification. All laboratories correctly identified all irradiated products using the screening criteria. There were no false positives. The results confirm the validity of the PSL method for shellfish, which has been adopted as a European standard method and by the Codex Alimentarius Commission. Calibration is required where only intestinal material is available. For whole samples with shell, screening alone is sufficient.

Calibration↗
PubMed2004

A comparison of RT-PCR-based assays for the detection of HAV from shellfish.

The hepatitis A virus (HAV) is the most common cause of viral infection linked to shellfish consumption. The lack of correlation between the fecal coliform indicators and the presence of enteric viruses in shellfish and their harvesting waters points to the need for molecular methods to detect viruses. We compared two RT-PCR based techniques currently available for the detection of the hepatitis A virus (HAV) in shellfish. Both approaches involve extraction of viral particles by glycine buffer and concentration of virus particles by one or two PEG precipitation steps. One procedure involves as RNA extraction method the use of oligo (dT) cellulose to select poly (A) RNA, and the other uses a system in which total RNA is bound on silica membrane. Comparison of the two RT-PCR based methods highlighted the efficiency of the first approach which is less time-consuming and technically demanding than the second.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Virological analysis of shellfish for food safety and control.

The present study was performed in order to obtain reliable and applicable techniques of viral detection in shellfish for use in ensuring food safety. This research was developed in two steps: (a) different techniques to recover viruses from artificially contaminated shellfish were tested and (b) the best technique was applied to analyse shellfish collected from sites along the coast of Salento.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Is shellfish consumption safe?

Louisiana provides nearly 40% of domestic seafood production. America's commercial fisheries, especially coastal shellfish fisheries, now face crippling economic and environmental pressures from seafood imports, over-fishing, urban and agricultural wastewater runoff, harmful algal blooms, and coastal wetlands loss. As a result of these ecosystem stresses, seafood-borne disease now causes 37% of all foodborne illness in the United States. Louisiana and other coastal-state physicians can effectively curtail the rising threat of local shellfish-borne disease outbreaks by supporting responsible coastal restoration and regulation of commercial shell-fishing, especially oyster fishing, and by recommending careful selection and preparation of all shellfish and crustaceans.

Arsenic Poisoning↗
PubMed2004

[High performance liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry for the determination of Brevetoxin PbTx-2 in shellfish].

Brevetoxin PbTx-2 was determined by high performance liquid chromatography coupled with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (Q-TOFMS). Extraction from shellfish tissue was achieved with acetone, and purified by solid-phase extraction on a C18 cartridge column. Chromatographic separation was performed on a Zorbax XDB-C18 column(150 mm x 2.1 mm i.d., 3.5 microm) combined with a safeguard column (Symmetry C18, 20 mm i.d. x 3.9 mm, 5 microm) with methanol-water(85: 15, v/v) containing 0.5 mmol/L ammonium acetate as eluent at a flow rate of 0.20 mL/min. The protonated PbTx-2 molecule was selected as a precursor ion scanning for Q-TOFMS in the positive electrospray ionization mode. Average recoveries of PbTx-2 spiked to tissue homogenates through the complete cleanup procedure ranged from 91% to 94%, and relative standard deviations (RSD) ranged from 11% to 12%. The limit of quantification in shellfish tissue was 0.1 microg/g, and the limit of detection based on signal-to-noise ratio of 3 was 0.5 ng. The proposed method was used to confirm PbTx-2 in toxic shellfish. It offers a high degree of specificity because Q-TOFMS with high resolution permits accurate relative molecular mass and fragment ion measurement at no expense of sensitivity.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Multiresidue method for determination of algal toxins in shellfish: single-laboratory validation and interlaboratory study.

A method that uses liquid chromatography with tandem mass spectrometry (LC/MS/MS) has been developed for the highly sensitive and specific determination of amnesic shellfish poisoning toxins, diarrhetic shellfish poisoning toxins, and other lipophilic algal toxins and metabolites in shellfish. The method was subjected to a full single-laboratory validation and a limited interlaboratory study. Tissue homogenates are blended with methanol-water (9 + 1), and the centrifuged extract is cleaned up with a hexane wash. LC/MS/MS (triple quadrupole) is used for quantitative analysis with reversed-phase gradient elution (acidic buffer), electrospray ionization (positive and negative ion switching), and multiple-reaction monitoring. Ester forms of dinophysis toxins are detected as the parent toxins after hydrolysis of the methanolic extract. The method is quantitative for 6 key toxins when reference standards are available: azaspiracid-1 (AZA1), domoic acid (DA), gymnodimine (GYM), okadaic acid (OA), pectenotoxin-2 (PTX2), and yessotoxin (YTX). Relative response factors are used to estimate the concentrations of other toxins: azaspiracid-2 and -3 (AZA2 and AZA3), dinophysis toxin-1 and -2 (DTX1 and DTX2), other pectenotoxins (PTX1, PTX6, and PTX11), pectenotoxin secoacid metabolites (PTX2-SA and PTX11-SA) and their 7-epimers, spirolides, and homoYTX and YTX metabolites (45-OHYTX and carboxyYTX). Validation data have been gathered for Greenshell mussel, Pacific oyster, cockle, and scallop roe via fortification and natural contamination. For the 6 key toxins at fortification levels of 0.05-0.20 mg/kg, recoveries were 71-99% and single laboratory reproducibilities, relative standard deviations (RSDs), were 10-24%. Limits of detection were <0.02 mg/kg. Extractability data were also obtained for several toxins by using successive extractions of naturally contaminated mussel samples. A preliminary interlaboratory study was conducted with a set of toxin standards and 4 mussel extracts. The data sets from 8 laboratories for the 6 key toxins plus DTX1 and DTX2 gave within-laboratories repeatability (RSD(R)) of 8-12%, except for PTX-2. Between-laboratories reproducibility (RSDR) values were compared with the Horwitz criterion and ranged from good to adequate for 7 key toxins (HorRat values of 0.8-2.0).

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Paralytic shellfish poisoning--Massachusetts and Alaska, 1990.

Paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) is a foodborne illness caused by consumption of shellfish or broth from cooked shellfish that contain either concentrated saxitoxin, an alkaloid neurotoxin, or related compounds. This report summarizes outbreaks of PSP that occurred in Massachusetts and Alaska in June 1990.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

[A case of food-dependent-exercise induced anaphylaxis possibly induced by shellfish (Sulculus Supertexta and Turbo Cornutus)].

A 17 years old girl experienced an anaphylactic reaction of urticaria, dyspnea, syncope and hypotension while riding a bicycle 55 minutes after eating shellfish Lapas shellfish which was a-like Sulculus Supertexta (SS). She recovered within several hours after the emergency treatment. Another attack occurred 3 months later while she was running with a dog 30 minutes after eating shellfish (Turbo Cornutus; TC). RAST scores were 4 for Lapas and 2 for TC. RAST inhibition test by ELISA showed a high crose-reaction between keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH) and Lapas, and between KLH and TC, while the cross reaction between Lapas and TC was low. Gel chromatography with sephacryl G-200 revealed that both Lapas and TC had several allergens with different molecules which were detected by ELISA. Exercise challenge produced an immediate fall of FEV1 and a significant increase in plasma histamine levels for 45 minutes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Shellfish: proximate composition, minerals, fatty acids, and sterols.

Proximate composition, minerals, fatty acids, and sterols were determined for eight species of shellfish commonly marketed in the Northwest. Moisture and total lipid content varied with the size of the species, with more variation in mollusca than in crustacea; total lipid content ranged from 0.7% in sea scallops to 3.1% in blue mussels but only from 1.2% in Dungeness crab to 1.3% in pink shrimp. The mineral content was highly variable; the mineral content of Northwest samples tended to be lower than that reported in other studies. Generally, shellfish are good sources of zinc, and Pacific oysters, blue mussels, and Manila clams are also good sources of iron. Five fatty acids (16:0, 16:1, 18:1, 20:5n-3, and 22:6n-3) represented from 60% to 84% of the fatty acid content. Palmitic acid ranged from 13% to 32% of the total fatty acids. Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids were predominant (37.6% to 54.3%), with sea scallops containing more than 50%; n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids ranged from 1.5% to 6.5%. In crustacea, cholesterol was the primary sterol, and brassicasterol was the only other measurable sterol. In all mollusca except California squid, cholesterol averaged 37 mg/100 gm and ranged from 23% to 39% of the total sterols. In squid, cholesterol, at 231 mg/100 gm, was the only measurable sterol. We conclude that shellfish vary widely in their nutrient content but, in general, are valuable additions to the diet.

Chromatography, Gas↗
PubMed1987

Intoxications from the seas: ciguatera, scombroid, and paralytic shellfish poisoning.

Sporadic cases and outbreaks of intoxications borne by fish and shellfish have increased in frequency during recent years. Ciguatera, scombroid, and paralytic shellfish poisoning account for nearly 16 per cent of all reported foodborne outbreaks of disease in the United States. Fishborne ciguatera and paralytic shellfish poisoning are characterized by gastrointestinal and neuromuscular manifestations attributable to toxins of dinoflagellates. These toxins impair sodium transport in cell membranes. Treatment is primarily supportive. Scombroid fish intoxication resembles histamine poisoning and may be treated effectively with antihistamines or cimetidine. Prevention of these intoxications at present depends upon avoidance of potential vectors.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

Comparison of two rapid test procedures with the standard EC test recovery of fecal coliform bacteria from shellfish-growing waters.

A study was conducted to compare recovery and enumeration capability of two 24-hr multitube fermentation tests with the standard EC test for fecal coliform levels in shellfish-growing waters. The 2 tests were the A-1 test developed by Andrews and Presnell, specifying 24-hr incubation in A-1 medium at 44.5 degree C; and a modification of the A-1 test requiring a 3-hr resuscitation of 35 degree C before incubation at 44.5 degree C for 21 hr. Fifteen State, Federal, and Provincial laboratories examined 10 routine shellfish-growing area samples per month in parallel by the 3 methods for 1 year. IMViC tests (indole, methyl red, Voges-Proskauer, and citrate) were conducted on all gas-positive tubes. The modified A-1 test recovered higher levels of fecal coliforms than the A-1 test. Although there were seasonal and geographic variations in recovery and enumeration by the modified A-1 test, overall there was good correlation of the modified A-1 test with the EC test. Both the A-1 and modified A-1 tests were more specific for Escherichia coli than the EC test. Results of the study indicate that the 24-hr modified A-1 test can be used as an alterantive test for the standard 72-hr EC test as an adjunct to the sanitary survey for the classification and control of shellfish-growing areas waters.

Bacteriological Techniques↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Liquid chromatographic determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in fish and shellfish.

A simple and accurate analytical method for determination of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in fish and shellfish is presented, which is considered to be useful for routine analyses and for screening purposes. The procedure involves alkaline digestion, extraction with n-hexane, silica gel column chromatography, and liquid chromatographic (LC) determination with fluorometric detection. During development of the analytical method for determination of PAHs, it was found that benzo[a]pyrene, a representative PAH, was decomposed easily by the analytical procedure, and this tendency was investigated for the experimental conditions used. Benzo[a]pyrene was decomposed by the coexistence of alkaline conditions, light, and oxygen; by peroxides in aged ethyl ether; and by oxygen when absorbed on silica gel. Thus, to obtain good recoveries and precise analytical results, these decomposition conditions must be avoided. The following precautions are recommended: protection from light through all analytical steps; addition of Na2S to alkaline digestion mixture as an antioxidant; complete removal of peroxides from ethyl ether just before use; quick column chromatography on silica gel; and prevention of air from contact with adsorbent. When this simple method was applied to fish and shellfish samples, very good recoveries of PAHs from fortified fish samples were obtained, and no serious interferences were observed in fish and shellfish extracts.

Animals↗
PubMed1981

Comparison of modified A-1 method with standard EC test for recovery of fecal coliform bacteria for shellfish.

This study is one of a series in which variations of the A-1 method for the detection and enumeration of fecal coliforms and Escherichia coli in seawater and foods were evaluated. The tests were conducted jointly by the Food and Drug Administration and state and provincial laboratories that support shellfish control programs in the United States and Canada as part of the National Shellfish Sanitation Program's Microbiology Task Force activities. Results showed significantly higher recovery of fecal coliforms from naturally contaminated shellfish by the AOAC official A-1-M method than by the American Public Health Association standard method. There was no significant difference in recovery of E. coli by the 2 methods.

Animals↗