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PubMed1990

[Predictors of early retirement and focused assignment to medical rehabilitation].

Previous work and results from the project "Identification of a high-risk profile for early retirement" were presented. The project is being supported by the LVA-Württemberg (pension insurance for blue collar workers). In this project, a two-step screening process to determine prospective early retirees and provide specific assignment for medical rehabilitation is being developed and tested, with the goal of adhering better to the basic principle of "rehabilitation before retirement". The foundations for the solution proposed in the two-step screening are predictors of early retirement, with which prospective retirees can be detected early on. On the basis of a cohort study on environmental effects and frequency of illness during the period 1974-85, we have identified predictors for early retirement and premature death. Early retirees complained of health problems even years before retirement. In particular, they complained of shortness of breath and respiratory tract ailments, general impairment of physical performance, and ailments of the skeletal and motor apparatus. Data for persons who died prematurely after 1974 were largely consistent with those for early retirees. Most prominent in this case were complaints indicating coronary risk or angina pectoris, chronic bronchitis, and peripheral circulation problems. We evaluated the significantly increased health problems in the risk groups from the 1974 inquiries as indicators or predictors for early retirement. We utilized them for a questionnaire which was designed to determine the predictive risk profile for early retirement, and may be therefore suitable as a screening instrument for identifying prospective early retirees among currently employed insured persons (screening stage 1).

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Retirement and mental health: analysis of the Australian national survey of mental health and well-being.

Nation-wide research on mental health problems amongst men and women during the transition from employment to retirement is limited. This study sought to explore the relationship between retirement and mental health across older adulthood, whilst considering age and known risk factors for mental disorders. Data were from the 1997 National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being, a cross-sectional survey of 10,641 Australian adults. The prevalence of depression and anxiety disorders was analysed in the sub-sample of men (n = 1928) and women (n = 2261) aged 45-74 years. Mental health was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Instrument. Additional measures were used to assess respondents' physical health, demographic and personal characteristics. The prevalence of common mental disorders diminished across increasing age groups of men and women. Women aged 55-59, 65-69, and 70-74 had significantly lower rates of mental disorders than those aged 45-49. In contrast, only men aged 65-69 and 70-74 demonstrated significantly lower prevalence compared with men aged 45-49. Amongst younger men, retirees were significantly more likely to have a common mental disorder relative to men still in the labour force; however, this was not the case for retired men of, or nearing, the traditional retirement age of 65. Men and women with poor physical health were also more likely to have a diagnosable mental disorder. The findings of this study indicate that, for men, the relationship between retirement and mental health varies with age. The poorer mental health of men who retire early is not explained by usual risk factors. Given current policy changes in many countries to curtail early retirement, these findings highlight the need to consider mental health, and its influencing factors, when encouraging continued employment amongst older adults.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1991

Involuntary retirement, Type A behavior, and current functioning in elderly men: 27-year follow-up of the Western Collaborative Group Study.

Data from 1,103 community-dwelling male participants (mean age = 71.7 years) in a 27-year cardiovascular disease follow-up were used to examine health and mental health sequelae in voluntarily and involuntarily retired Type A individuals. After controlling for age, education, and occupation, Type A subjects, determined both at intake (1960-1961) and at follow-up (1986-1987), reported significantly more frequently that retirement was involuntary. Regardless of Type A status, those reporting involuntary retirement also tended to have poorer adjustment to retirement, more illness, poorer physical status, and more depressive symptomatology. Minimal evidence was obtained on a broad array of indicators for psychological, physical, cognitive, and health status that Type As who retired involuntarily fared worse in retirement than those who retired voluntarily.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2005

Effects of retirement on lifestyle in relation to changes in weight and waist circumference in Dutch men: a prospective study.

OBJECTIVE: To study changes in lifestyle in relation to changes in body weight and waist circumference associated with occupational retirement in men. DESIGN: A prospective cohort study with 5 years of follow-up. At baseline and at follow-up, questionnaires were completed and body weight and waist circumference were measured. SETTING: The Doetinchem Cohort Study, consisting of inhabitants of Doetinchem, a town in a rural area of The Netherlands. SUBJECTS: In total 288 healthy men aged 50-65 years at baseline, who either remained employed or retired over follow-up. RESULTS: The effect of retirement on changes in weight and waist circumference was dependent on type of former occupation. Increase in body weight and waist circumference was higher among men who retired from active jobs (0.42 kg year(-1) and 0.77 cm year(-1), respectively) than among men who retired from sedentary jobs (0.08 kg year(-1) and 0.23 cm year(-1), respectively). Weight gain and increase in waist circumference were associated with a decrease in fruit consumption and fibre density of the diet, with an increase in frequency of eating breakfast, and with a decrease in several physical activities, such as household activities, bicycling, walking and doing odd jobs. CONCLUSION: Retirement was associated with an increase in weight and waist circumference among those with former active jobs, but not among those with former sedentary jobs. Retirement may bring opportunities for healthy changes in diet and physical activity, which could be used in health promotion programmes.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1984

The structure of post-retirement adaptation for recent and longer-term women retirees.

A review of the literature on adjustment to retirement reveals that many investigators have studied retirees together as a group, regardless of the amount of time they have been retired. The present study questions the validity of that approach. The post-retirement adaptation of a group of 59 relatively recent (3-6 years) and 122 longer-term (7 + years) retirees was compared via canonical correlation analyses. The results showed that the structure of post-retirement adaptation differed for the two groups. The relatively recent retirees' adaptational variate emphasized satisfaction with retirement (.990) and showed weaker loadings on self-esteem (.475) and happiness (.374). Corresponding factor loadings for the longer-term retirees were -.340, .827 and .494, respectively. Thus, retirement satisfaction (or job deprivation) was a more salient aspect of the recent retirees' adaptation while longer-term adaptation was a more general phenomenon. These results suggest that the inclusion of longer-term retirees in retirement research may obscure the important correlates of adaptation to this life change.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

Quality of work, well-being, and intended early retirement of older employees: baseline results from the SHARE Study.

BACKGROUND: Given the challenge of a high proportion of older employees who retire early from work we analyse associations of indicators of a poor psychosocial quality of work with intended premature departure from work in a large sample of older male and female employees in 10 European countries. METHODS: Baseline data from the 'Survey of Health, Ageing and Retirement in Europe' (SHARE) were obtained from 3523 men and 3318 women in 10 European countries. Data on intended early retirement, four measures of well-being (self-rated health, depressive symptoms, general symptom load, and quality of life), and quality of work (effort-reward imbalance; low control at work) were obtained from structured interviews and questionnaires. Country-specific and total samples are analysed, using logistic regression analysis. RESULTS: Poor quality of work is significantly associated with intended early retirement. After adjustment for well-being odds ratios (OR) of effort-reward imbalance [OR 1.72 (1.43-2.08)] and low control at work [OR 1.51 (1.27-1.80)] on intended early retirement are observed. Poor quality of work and reduced well-being are independently associated with the intention to retire from work. CONCLUSION: The consistent association of a poor psychosocial quality of work with intended early retirement among older employees across all European countries under study calls for improved investments into better quality of work, in particular increased control and an appropriate balance between efforts spent and rewards received at work.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1997

The retirement adjustment process: changes in the well-being of male retirees across time.

The purpose of this prospective study was to (1) evaluate the impact of retirement, (2) monitor the change in adjustment across time, and (3) identify the resources predictive of short- and long-term adjustment in retirement. A sample of 117 male retirees was assessed on indices of physical and psychological health, perceived control, retirement satisfaction, and life satisfaction at 2-4 months preretirement, 1 year post-, and 6-7 years postretirement. The results provided support for a positive impact of retirement, as retirees evidenced increases in well-being during the first year. There was also evidence of a retirement adjustment process, in that aspects of well-being (i.e., psychological health) changed from short- to long-term retirement. Finally, physical health, income, and voluntary retirement status predicted short-term adjustment, while internal locus of control was an additional resource for long-term adjustment. Changes in resources over time also differentially predicted short- and long-term adjustment (e.g., an increase in internal locus of control predicted an increase in activity satisfaction at 1 year but not at 6-7 years postretirement).

Aged↗
PubMed2000

Tracking the majority: households, older workers, and retirement during the Great Depression.

OBJECTIVES: Well into the 20th century, elderly people relied on traditional means of support, such as children's financial contributions or continued labor force activity. After the institution of Social Security in the late 1930s, retirement--permanent withdrawal from the labor force with financial arrangements made for support--became an expected part of the life cycle of men 65 years and older in the United States. This research explores the extent of retirement and methods to finance it in the period just before Social Security became available. METHODS: The 1935-1936 Study of Consumer Purchases (SCP) contains information on demographic and economic conditions for 5,975 households. The SCP is a rich but underutilized source of data on household behavior. The data allow two definitions of labor force activity to be constructed; descriptive statistics identify factors associated with retirement. RESULTS: Alternative sources of support, such as pensions and investment income, have been thought to be relatively insignificant before the 1940s. This article shows that retirement in the modern sense appeared before state provision of support for aged persons. SCP data indicate considerable reliance on such financial instruments, a particularly noteworthy result given Depression conditions. Pension and investment income also helps identify persons who might report a gainful occupation but appear to have withdrawn from labor force activity, meeting a modern definition of retirement. DISCUSSION: The SCP, collected just as Social Security was enacted, reveals that nonfamilial sources of income like pensions and investments had begun to underwrite retirement without dependence on family members. Many older persons relied on these instruments for support in old age, and many did not have children present in their households. These results constitute evidence for an independent, nonfamily-based retirement before governmental provision of assistance through Social Security.

Aged↗
PubMed1976

Retired academics and research activity.

A limited literature on the retirement of academics suggests that they do not follow the expected pattern of retirement but may be similar to scientists in retirement. Data collected from 207 academics who retired from state and small private colleges and ivy league and large state universities indicate that to varying degrees they continue to engage in professional activities after retirement. Academics who are high on professional visibility appear to be especially likely to continue to engage in research and/or writing. The importance of psychological centrality of pre-retirement work to post-retirement activity is suggested.

Aged↗
PubMed1980

Concurrent change in planned and preferred age for retirement.

Studies of older workers' readiness to retire have reported a growing trend toward plans or expectations for earlier retirement. At the same time, other studies have shown that as workers age they prefer progressively later ages for retirement. To clarify the relationship between planned and preferred age for retirement, concurrent trends in the two measures for a single sample of male workers were compared. At two sampling times 10 years apart, a panel of 912 workers (aged 45 to 74 at T2) was asked at what age they planned to retire and at what age they preferred to retire. The pattern of joint change in these two measures showed a dynamic relationship between them. Even though panel members generally preferred to retire sooner than they planned to, preferences were revised (toward later ages) over time and tended to converge with the planned age for withdrawal from work.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Changes in attitudes toward retirement: evidence from a panel study of older males.

Although societal evaluations of retirement may be changing, we hypothesized that attitudes toward retirement change little as persons pass through the years normally associated with retirement. To test this and other hypotheses, data were analyzed from a panel study of 1,152 older Iowa males. Results suggest that changes in retirement attitudes tend to be relatively insignificant. Selected occupational categories differ, however, as do employed and retired persons at the end of the 10-year study. Also, results vary somewhat by the item used to measure attitudes toward retirement, with more negative attitudes toward personal dimensions of retirement and greater acceptance of the societal dimensions.

Aged↗
PubMed1983

Claims that retirement improves health.

The notion that retiring can benefit health has gone largely unexplored, though large proportions of retirees retrospectively claim improved health upon retirement. Although some of these claims may have a medical basis, it is more likely that retirees perceive that their health has improved due to the reduced role demands that may accompany retirement. This study used prospective data to compare men who claimed that retirement had a good effect on their health (n = 114) with men who claimed no effect of retirement on health (n = 149). Results showed that retrospective claims of good effects were not corroborated by a corresponding longitudinal, pre- to post-retirement improvement in self-reported health. Claims of good effects, however, were indeed more likely among men whose retirement entailed the reduction of prior job strain and role demands, thereby supporting the interpretation that such claims represent the enhancement of functional health status.

Aged↗
PubMed1984

Sex differences in the antecedents and consequences of retirement.

The purpose of this paper was to compare the antecedents and consequences of retirement among men and women. Data were analyzed from two surveys: the Retirement History Study (N for analysis = 1845) and the Duke Second Longitudinal Study (N = 235). The predictors and outcomes of retirement used in analyses were those suggested in previous research. The results suggest that (a) the variables that predict retirement for men do not predict retirement for women and (b) retirement affects substantially more outcomes for men than for women. For both sexes, however, retirement had both positive and negative effects. Discussion is focused upon the possible explanations for the sex differences observed.

Aged↗
PubMed1984

Work ethic, daily activities, and retirement satisfaction.

Relationships among satisfaction in retirement, strength of the work ethic, and daily activities were examined. Seventy-six retired men and women aged 53 to 88 years (M = 69.6) completed two measures of retirement satisfaction (the Life Satisfaction Index-A and the Retirement Description Index), the Protestant Ethic scale, and kept activity diaries for 1 week, in which activities were rated for usefulness and pleasantness. Retirement satisfaction, work values, and usefulness ratings were related complexly such that the least satisfied retirees, as measured by the RDI, were those with high work values who did not perceive their activities as being useful and those with low work values who perceived their activities as being highly useful. Greater satisfaction, as measured by the LSI-A, was associated with higher usefulness ratings. The mean number of activities listed correlated negatively with Protestant Ethic scores, but positively with both measures of retirement satisfaction, suggesting that retirees with strong work values are not as active or as satisfied in retirement.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed1985

An empirical test for phases of retirement: findings from the Normative Aging Study.

Although gerontologists have shown considerable interest in describing possible phases of retirement, the temporal course of retirement experience remains largely unspecified. This study of 293 male retirees from the Normative Aging Study used cross-sectional data to compare levels of life satisfaction and lesiure activities across 6-month time intervals within the first 3 years after retirement. Regression models were used to test the hypothesis that men retired 0 to 6 months differed from men retired for longer periods. Findings showed that, compared with these recent retirees, men retired 13 to 18 months had lower levels of overall life satisfaction and self-perceived involvement in physical activities. Analyses of the constituents of life satisfaction showed greater optimism and future orientation among recent retirees and a comparative deficit at 13 to 18 months. These findings support an interpretation that the immediate postretirement period is marked by more enthusiasm and that some degree of temporary letdown or dysphoria is likely during the second year of retirement.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1992

Gender differences in exposure to life events and adaptation to retirement.

Gender differences in the experience of life events surrounding the retirement transition and the effects of such life event experiences on men's and women's adaptation to retirement were investigated. Data based on a stratified random sample of retirees covered by Florida's State Retirement System (n = 452 women and 378 men) indicate that women report more life events than men, particularly during the period preceding retirement. Furthermore, women's retirement adaptation seems more affected than men's by the experience of life events. The major conclusion to be drawn from these results is that better understanding of gender differences in the retirement experience can be achieved only if gender variations in the circumstances of the retirement transition are acknowledged and further explored.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

In retirement migration, who counts? A methodological question with economic policy implications.

PURPOSE: We examine the methodological and economic policy implications of three operations of retirement migration. DESIGN AND METHODS: We compared the traditional age-based definition of retirement migration and two retirement-based definitions, based on degree of labor-force participation and retirement income, by using the 2000 U.S. Census Public Use Microdata Sample. RESULTS: The age-based definition overestimated the number of retired migrants, although the ranking of host and donor states remained relatively stable; nevertheless, states revealed different rates of change in inmigration and outmigration and income streams declined. IMPLICATIONS: Retirement-based definitions are more useful and precise for those researchers considering the economic implication of retirement migration.

Humans↗
PubMed1994

Attitudes toward retirement. A survey of the American Surgical Association.

OBJECTIVE: This study examined attitudes and practices with respect to retirement in a senior group of surgeons. The authors studied the extent of planning for retirement and factors that should determine withdrawal from performing operations. SUMMARY BACKGROUND DATA: Federal law prohibits mandatory retirement or withdrawal of operating privileges based on age. Some surgeons fail to recognize the effects of aging, which may place their patients and themselves at risk. There currently is no established method to deal with these issues until adverse outcomes occur. METHODS: A survey was returned from 75% (659/882) of the members of the American Surgical Association. Work load, level of planning for retirement, and methods to determine when one should cease performing operations were collected. Responses were coded and the data were analyzed. Additional subgroup analyses were conducted, stratified by age and level of operative activity. RESULTS: Less than 50% of respondents reported any retirement plan, and among those who did, 75% planned activities in medicine. The extent of planning varied by age. In the youngest group (40-50 years), only 6.5% had a plan versus 40% of those older than 70 years who were not retired already. With respect to withdrawal of privileges, the majority of those surveyed favored determination by peer review or onset of physical disability rather than age. The level of activity declined significantly between 60 and 70 years; however, 18% of those older than 70 years of age continued to perform operations. CONCLUSIONS: Both personal and institutional problems can arise when surgeons continue to practice despite limitations of aging. More positive attitudes toward retirement are needed as well as methods for evaluation of performance that reflect a surgeon's response to aging.

Adult↗