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PubMed2001

Molecular phylogenies of fig wasps: partial cocladogenesis of pollinators and parasites.

Figs (Ficus spp., Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps form an obligate mutualism, which has long been considered a classic case of coevolution and cospeciation. Figs are also exploited by several clades of nonpollinating wasps, which are parasites of the mutualism and whose patterns of speciation have received little attention. We used data from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA regions to estimate the phylogenies of 20 species of Pleistodontes pollinating wasps and 16 species of Sycoscapter nonpollinating wasps associated with Ficus species in the section Malvanthera. We compare the phylogenies of 15 matched Pleistodontes/Sycoscapter species pairs and show that the level of cospeciation is significantly greater than that expected by chance. Our estimates of the maximum level of cospeciation (50 to 64% of nodes) are very similar to those obtained in other recent studies of coevolved parasitic and mutualistic associations. However, we also show that there is not perfect congruence of pollinator and parasite phylogenies (for any substantial clade) and argue that host plant switching is likely to be less constrained for Sycoscapter parasites than for Pleistodontes pollinators. There is perfect correspondence between two terminal clades of two sister species in the respective phylogenies, and rates of molecular evolution in these pairs are similar.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Power of mixed-model QTL mapping from phenotypic, pedigree and marker data in self-pollinated crops.

The power of QTL mapping by a mixed-model approach has been studied for hybrid crops but remains unknown in self-pollinated crops. Our objective was to evaluate the usefulness of mixed-model QTL mapping in the context of a breeding program for a self-pollinated crop. Specifically, we simulated a soybean (Glycine max L. Merr.) breeding program and applied a mixed-model approach that comprised three steps: variance component estimation, single-marker analyses, and multiple-marker analysis. Average power to detect QTL ranged from <1 to 47% depending on the significance level (0.01 or 0.0001), number of QTL (20 or 80), heritability of the trait (0.40 or 0.70), population size (600 or 1,200 inbreds), and number of markers (300 or 600). The corresponding false discovery rate ranged from 2 to 43%. Larger populations, higher heritability, and fewer QTL controlling the trait led to a substantial increase in power and to a reduction in the false discovery rate and bias. A stringent significance level reduced both the power and false discovery rate. There was greater power to detect major QTL than minor QTL. Power was higher and the false discovery rate was lower in hybrid crops than in self-pollinated crops. We conclude that mixed-model QTL mapping is useful for gene discovery in plant breeding programs of self-pollinated crops.

Chromosome Mapping↗
PubMed2005

The self-incompatibility locus (S) and quantitative trait loci for self-pollination and seed dormancy in sunflower.

Wild populations of common sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) are self-incompatible and have deep seed dormancy, whereas modern cultivars, inbreds, and hybrids are self-compatible and partially-to-strongly self-pollinated, and have shallow seed dormancy. Self-pollination (SP) and seed dormancy are genetically complex traits, the number of self-compatibility (S) loci has been disputed, and none of the putative S loci have been genetically mapped in sunflower. We genetically mapped quantitative trait loci (QTL) for self-incompatibility (SI), SP, and seed dormancy in a backcross population produced from a cross between an elite, self-pollinated, nondormant inbred line (NMS373) and a wild, self-incompatible, dormant population (ANN1811). A population consisting of 212 BC(1) progeny was subsequently produced by backcrossing a single hybrid individual to NMS373. BC(1) progeny produced 0-838 seeds per primary capitula when naturally selfed and 0-518 seeds per secondary capitula when manually selfed and segregated for a single S locus. The S locus mapped to linkage group 17 and was tightly linked to a cluster of previously identified QTL for several domestication and postdomestication traits. Two synergistically interacting QTL were identified for SP among self-compatible (ss) BC(1) progeny (R(2)=34.6%). NMS373 homozygotes produced 271.5 more seeds per secondary capitulum than heterozygotes. Germination percentages of seeds after-ripened for 4 weeks ranged from 0% to 100% among self-compatible BC(1)S(1) families. Three QTL for seed dormancy were identified (R(2)=38.3%). QTL effects were in the predicted direction (wild alleles decreased self-pollination and seed germination). The present analysis differentiated between loci governing SI and SP and identified DNA markers for bypassing SI and seed dormancy in elite x wild crosses through marker-assisted selection.

Chromosome Mapping↗
PubMed2005

The composition and timing of flower odour emission by wild Petunia axillaris coincide with the antennal perception and nocturnal activity of the pollinator Manduca sexta.

In the genus Petunia, distinct pollination syndromes may have evolved in association with bee-visitation (P. integrifolia spp.) or hawk moth-visitation (P. axillaris spp). We investigated the extent of congruence between floral fragrance and olfactory perception of the hawk moth Manduca sexta. Hawk moth pollinated P. axillaris releases high levels of several compounds compared to the bee-pollinated P. integrifolia that releases benzaldehyde almost exclusively. The three dominating compounds in P. axillaris were benzaldehyde, benzyl alcohol and methyl benzoate. In P. axillaris, benzenoids showed a circadian rhythm with an emission peak at night, which was absent from P. integrifolia. These characters were highly conserved among different P. axillaris subspecies and P. axillaris accessions, with some differences in fragrance composition. Electroantennogram (EAG) recordings using flower-blends of different wild Petunia species on female M. sexta antennae showed that P. axillaris odours elicited stronger responses than P. integrifolia odours. EAG responses were highest to the three dominating compounds in the P. axillaris flower odours. Further, EAG responses to odour-samples collected from P. axillaris flowers confirmed that odours collected at night evoked stronger responses from M. sexta than odours collected during the day. These results show that timing of odour emissions by P. axillaris is in tune with nocturnal hawk moth activity and that flower-volatile composition is adapted to the antennal perception of these pollinators.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Genetics of flower size and nectar volume in Petunia pollination syndromes.

The two related Petunia species, P. axillaris and P. integrifolia, are sympatric at various locations in South America but do not hybridise. Divergent pollinator preferences are believed to be in part responsible for their reproductive isolation. The volume of nectar produced and several components of flower morphology might contribute to pollinator-dependant reproductive isolation. In this study, we aimed to identify the genetic changes underlying the quantitative differences observed between these two Petunia species in flower size and nectar volume. We mapped quantitative trait loci (QTL) responsible for the different phenotypes of P. axillaris and P. integrifolia in an inter-specific backcross population. QTL of small to moderate effect control the differences in flower size and volume of nectar. In addition, we observed strong suppression of meiotic recombination in Petunia, even between closely related species, which precluded a fine resolution of QTL mapping. Thus, our data suggest that flower size and nectar volume are highly polygenic. They are likely to have evolved gradually through pollinator-mediated adaptation or reinforcement, and are not likely to have been primary factors in early steps of pollinator isolation of P. axillaris and P. integrifolia.

Crosses, Genetic↗
PubMed2001

Immunocytochemical localization of esterified and unesterified pectins in unpollinated and pollinated styles of Petunia hybrida Hort.

Localization of pectins in the style of Petunia hybrida before and after pollination was investigated by immunocytochemistry using two primary monoclonal antibodies specific to highly (JIM7) and weakly (JIM5) methylesterified pectins. In the unpollinated style, esterified pectins occurred mainly in the cell walls of cortex tissue, while unesterified pectins were present mainly in the extracellular matrix (ECM) of the transmitting tract. After pollination no remarkable differences were found in pectin distribution in the ground tissue of the style. On the other hand, in the transmitting tract a reduction in the quantity of unesterified pectins was observed. Unesterified pectins in the extracellular regions of the transmitting tissue decreased before the penetration of the pollen tubes, indicating that pollination induces a reduction in the amount of unesterified pectins in the transmitting-tract ECM. The correlation between the degradation of strongly Ca2+-binding pectins and the growing level of those ions in the extracellular regions of the transmitting tract in the pollinated pistil of P. hybrida (M. Lenartowska et al. 1997) suggests that this process may constitute a mechanism for creating an optimum calcium medium for in vivo-growing pollen tubes. Both pectin categories were localized in pollen tubes. Esterified pectin epitopes were localized mainly in the vesicles of the tip cytoplasm. Unesterified pectin epitopes were found in the external fibrillar wall of pollen tubes.

Antibodies, Monoclonal↗
PubMed2003

Effect of pollinator-inflicted ovule damage on floral abscission in the yucca-yucca moth mutualism: the role of mechanical and chemical factors.

The long-term persistence of obligate mutualisms (over 40 Mya in both fig/fig wasps and yucca/yucca moths) raises the question of how one species limits exploitation by the other species, even though there is selection pressure on individuals to maximize fitness. In the case of yuccas, moths serve as the plant's only pollinator, but eggs laid by the moths before pollination hatch into larvae that consume seeds. Previous studies have shown that flowers with high egg loads are more likely to abscise. This suggests that yucca flowers can select against moths that lay many eggs per flower through selective abscission of flowers; however, it is not known how yucca moths trigger floral abscission. We tested how the moth Tegeticula yuccasella triggers floral abscission during oviposition in Yucca filamentosa by examining the effects of ovipositor insertion and egg laying on ovule viability and floral abscission. Eggs are not laid at the site of ovipositor insertion: we used this separation to test whether wounded ovules were more closely associated with the ovipositor site or an egg's location. Using a tetrazolium stain to detect injured ovules, we determined whether the number of ovipositions affected the number of wounded ovules in naturally pollinated flowers. Two wounding experiments were used to test the effect of mechanical damage on the probability of floral abscission. The types of wounds in these experiments mimicked two types of oviposition-superficial oviposition in the ovary wall and oviposition into the locular cavity-that have been observed in species of Tegeticula. The effect of moth eggs on ovule viability was experimentally tested by culturing ovules in vitro, placing moth eggs on the ovules, and measuring changes in ovule viability with a tetrazolium stain. We found that ovules were physically wounded during natural oviposition. Ovules showed a visible wounding response in moth-pollinated flowers collected 7-12 h after oviposition. Exact location of wounded ovules relative to eggs and oviposition scars, as well as results from the artificial wounding experiments, showed that the moth ovipositor inflicts mechanical damage on the ovules. Significantly higher abscission rates were observed in artificially wounded flowers in which only 4-8% of the ovules were injured. Eggs did not affect ovule viability as measured by the tetrazolium stain. These results suggest that physical damage to ovules caused by ovipositing is sufficient to explain selective fruit abscission. Whether injury as a mechanism of selective abscission in yuccas is novel or a preadaptation will require further study.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2003

Butterfly pollination and high-contrast visual signals in a low-density distylous plant.

In low-density butterfly-pollinated Mussaenda frondosa (Rubiaceae), flowers attract pollinators at short distances while conspicuous, non-rewarding accessory bracts are detectable at long distances by long-ranging pollinators such as the birdwing butterfly Troides minos that did not detect flower-bearing plants in the absence of these bracts. However, even in the absence of flowers, the white, ultraviolet-absorbing bracts attracted butterflies that visited flowerless plants. Although flower visits by short-ranging territorial butterflies declined significantly on removal of bracts, they did not cease completely. Nectar-robbing carpenter bees and birds did not change their behaviour following bract removal. Bract removal caused a significant decline in fruit set, indicating their importance as visual signals to pollinators.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Nonadditive effects of flower damage and hummingbird pollination on the fecundity of Mimulus luteus.

Flower herbivory and pollination have been described as interactive processes that influence each other in their effects on plant reproductive success. Few studies, however, have so far examined their joint effects in natural populations. In this paper we evaluate the influence of flower damage and pollination by the hummingbird Oreotrochilus leucopleurus on the fecundity of the Andean monkey flower Mimulus luteus. We performed a 2x2 factorial experiment, with artificial clipping of lower petals and selective exclusion of the hummingbird as main factors. In spite of the relatively low proportion (27.5%) of the variance in seed production accounted for by the full factorial model, artificial damage and hummingbird exclusion, as well as their interaction, were highly significant, indicating nonadditive effects of factors on plant fecundity. In the presence of hummingbirds, undamaged flowers had a seed production that was 1.7-fold higher than for damaged flowers, suggesting that the effect of flower damage on female reproductive success occurs probably as a consequence of hummingbird discrimination against damaged corollas. This result indicates that the impact of flower herbivory on plant fecundity was contingent on the presence or absence of hummingbirds, suggesting that pollinators may indirectly select for undamaged and probably resistant flower phenotypes. A second interaction effect revealed that undamaged flowers produced 78.5% more seeds in the absence of rather than in the presence of O. leucopleurus, raising the question of the ecological mechanism involved. We suggest that the strong territorial behavior exhibited by the bee Centris nigerrima may confine the foraging activities of the remaining bee species to safe sites within exclosures. Overall, our results provide evidence that hummingbird pollination and flower herbivory have interdependent effects on M. luteus fecundity, which indicates that it will be difficult to predict their ecological and evolutionary consequences unless interactions are analyzed in an integrated form.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Correlation between pollen morphology and pollination mechanisms in the Hydrocharitaceae.

The pollen morphology of 11 genera and 11 species of the Hydrocharitaceae and one species of the Najadaceae was studied using scanning and transmission electron microscopies, and the exine structures and sculptures are discussed in relation to pollination mechanisms and the molecular phylogeny. The pollen grains of the Hydrocharitaceae are spherical, inaperturate, and form monads or tetrads, while those of the Najadaceae are elliptical, inaperturate, and form monads. The entomophilous genera Egeria, Blyxa, Ottelia, Stratiotes, and Hydrocharis share pollen grains that have projections like spines or bacula. The anemophilous genus Limnobium has reticulate pollen grains. The hypohydrophilous genera Thalassia and Najas are characterized by pollen grains with reduced exine structures. The pollen-epihydrophilous genera Elodea and Hydrilla have tightly arranged small spinous pollen grains, and the male flower-epihydrophilous genera Enhalus and Vallisneria have reduced reticulate or gemmate exines. Character state reconstruction of the exine structures and sculptures using a molecular phylogenetic tree suggests that variation in the exine is generally correlated with the pollination mechanism; the selective pressures acting on the pollination mechanisms have reduced the exine structure in hypohydrophilous plants and resulted in various exine sculptures that are adapted to the different pollination mechanisms in entomophilous, anemophilous, and pollen-epihydrophilous plants.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed1997

Pollination-enhanced expression of a receptor-like protein kinase related gene in tobacco styles.

We have isolated a putative serine/threonine receptor kinase gene with an expression pattern indicating that it may play a role in the stylar response to pollination. Differential display PCR was used to select tobacco mRNAs with increased accumulation following pollination. NTS16, a cDNA identified by this method, is homologous to a ca. 2.4 kb mRNA primarily expressed in pistil tissues. Levels of this mRNA increase during floral development and are further increased by pollination reaching maximal accumulation 12-18 hours after pollination and then declining. mRNA levels can also be increased by the application of ethylene to unpollinated flowers. A polypeptide encoded by the NTS 16 open reading frame has sequence similarity to the catalytic domain of several receptor protein kinases from plants including the S-receptor kinases implicated in the rejection of self-pollen in Brassica species and the Pto gene product of tomato which confers resistance to a bacterial pathogen.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1999

Pollination, wounding and jasmonate treatments induce the expression of a developmentally regulated pistil dioxygenase at a distance, in the ovary, in the wild potato Solanum chacoense Bitt.

Pollination and fertilization trigger unique developmental programs leading to embryogenesis, ovary maturation and seed set. Pistil tissues are actively involved in pollen tube growth and respond to the presence of the growing pollen tubes by modulating the expression of specific genes. Using subtractive hybridization to isolate genes involved in pollen-pistil interactions and fertilization, we have isolated a pollination- and fertilization-induced dioxygenase which is predominantly expressed in the pistil. In situ hybridization analyses revealed that the SPP2 dioxygenase (Solanum pollinated pistil) from the self-incompatible wild potato Solanum chacoense Bitt. is also developmentally regulated, with mRNA levels gradually regressing from the tip of the style towards the ovary during pistil development. At maturity, the upper limit of SPP2 transcript distribution coincided with the abscission zone of the style and SPP2 dioxygenase expression in ovaries coincided with the fertilization receptivity period of the flower. Pollination, as well as wounding of the style, induced an increase in SPP2 mRNA steady-state levels at a distance, in the ovary. Treatments with stress hormones including methyl jasmonate, jasmonic acid and salicylic acid mimicked the wound response and also induced SPP2 transcripts in the ovary. The SPP2 dioxygenase could be involved in the biosynthesis of deterrent alkaloids in reproductive tissues or in generating chemical signals involved in pollen tube guidance.

Acetates↗
PubMed2001

Predictors of group 5 grass-pollen allergens in settled house dust: comparison between pollination and nonpollination seasons.

BACKGROUND: Some sensitive pollen-allergic patients may experience perennial symptoms, and for these patients it is vitally important to know the concentration of grass-pollen allergens in their homes. The main objective of this study was to detect predictors associated with high grass allergen concentration in settled house dust during and outside the grass pollination season. METHODS: We detected group 5 grass-pollen allergens in dust samples from randomly selected homes of three counties in the region of Sachsen-Anhalt: Hettstedt (n=183), Zerbst (n=152), and Bitterfeld (n=119). Dust samples were collected from the floors of living rooms (LR) and children's rooms (CR) from April 1996 to March 1998. RESULTS: Phl p 5 was detected in settled house dust in 91% of the homes. The range was between undetectable (<30 ng/m2) and 4300 ng Phl p 5/m2 sampling area during grass pollination, and 1300 ng Phl p 5/m2 outside the pollination season, respectively. We observed a partially higher concentration of indoor allergenic activity several weeks after the grass-pollen peak. A positive association was found between Phl p 5 levels and total dust amounts throughout the year. Thus, we assume that grass allergens accumulate in settled house dust. During pollination, the Phl p 5 levels are 1.8 times higher in homes where vacuuming of carpets takes place only once a week or less than in those vacuumed daily. Furthermore, higher concentrations of Phl p 5 in settled floor dust can be expected in homes located within suburban areas (mean ratio [MR] 1.74) and prefabricated slab buildings (MR=1.54). CONCLUSIONS: Quite high levels of Phl p 5 accumulate in settled house dust even during periods when no grass pollen is present in the atmosphere. The removal of dust by frequent cleaning reduces the indoor exposure to grass allergens. Such information is essential to train patients in allergen avoidance.

Air Pollutants↗
PubMed2005

Botany: specialized bird perch aids cross-pollination.

Birds may hover over or perch on flowers when feeding on nectar, and this assists cross-pollination if they then visit other plants. Here we investigate the curious sterile inflorescence axis of the South African Cape endemic 'rat's tail' plant (Babiana ringens, Iridaceae), whose function--unlike in other bird-pollinated plants--is exclusively to provide a perch for foraging birds. We find that this structure promotes the plant's mating success by causing the malachite sunbird (Nectarinia famosa), its main pollinator, to adopt a position ideal for the cross-pollination of its unusual ground-level flowers.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Gene flow and mode of pollination in a dry-grassland species, Filipendula vulgaris (Rosaceae).

Filipendula vulgaris is a characteristic species of dry nonacidic grasslands in Denmark. This habitat type occurs only on marginal areas not suitable for agriculture or urbanization and that are by their nature fragmented. The population genetic structure of F. vulgaris was investigated in 17 populations within two regions of Denmark, using isozyme electrophoresis. Small populations were found to have significantly fewer polymorphic loci than larger populations, but all populations maintained the same common allelic variants. The degree of isolation of individual populations did not affect the amount of genetic variation. Offspring arrays revealed a very high outcrossing rate (0.96). The field study demonstrated a very high level of gene flow between populations considering that small insects are thought to be the main pollinators of this species. An experiment to verify whether pollen transport by wind could explain the results from the field study demonstrated long-distance transport from isolated plants to bagged plants. Filipendula vulgaris pollen grains are very small and this explains why outcrossed progeny were found using pollination bags with small pore sizes. We conclude that wind pollination is indeed possible and together with insect pollination is causing the observed patterns of genetic variation. The substantial gene flow between populations may be reducing the effects of genetic drift in the small fragmented populations of F. vulgaris.

Alleles↗
PubMed2004

Floral evolution and pollinator mate choice in a sexually deceptive orchid.

Sexually deceptive orchids mimic sex pheromones and appearance of female insects to attract males, which pollinate the flowers in an attempted mating. This study examines the effects of pollinator mate choice on orchid floral evolution using the Thynnine wasp Neozeleboria cryptoides (Smith) (Hymenoptera: Tiphiidae), which pollinates the sexually deceptive orchid Chiloglottis trapeziformis Fitzg. (i) When male wasps were given the choice between two female dummies of different sizes and identical amount of synthetic pheromone, they preferentially attempted to copulate with medium-sized dummies over small dummies. (ii) When given the choice between two dummies of identical size but different amounts of pheromone, males preferred the larger amount of pheromone. Larger amounts of pheromone generally attracted more males than smaller amounts. (iii) Orchid flower labella, which mimic a female body, were significantly longer and broader than female wasp bodies, and the flowers also produced on average 10 times more 'pheromone' than females. The evolution and maintenance of these exaggerated mating signals is likely to be mediated by the male pollinator behaviour demonstrated here. (iv) When five dummies were offered simultaneously in a 10 cm circular array, males rarely attempted copulation on more than one dummy during a single visit. This behaviour may foster the evolution or maintenance of clonality in C. trapeziformis, as it will minimize pollen exchange within clones.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Pollination of Oncocyclus irises (Iris: Iridaceae) by night-sheltering male bees.

Irises in the section Oncocyclus (Siems.) Baker ( IRIS: Iridaceae) grow throughout the Middle East and have large and dark-coloured flowers but no nectar reward available to flower visitors. Consequently, no reward-collecting pollinators have been observed visiting the flowers during daytime. The only visitors are solitary male bees ( Eucera spp.: Apidae) that enter the flowers at dusk and stay there overnight. Here we describe the mating system of Oncocyclus irises, and the role of night-sheltering male bees in their pollination system. Pollen viability in I. haynei on Mt. Gilboa was very high (>90%) throughout all floral life stages. Stigmas were receptive in buds and in open flowers, but not in older ones. Self-pollination yielded no fruits in three species, confirming complete self-incompatibility in Oncocyclus irises. On average, 1.9 flowers were visited by each male bee before it settled for the night in the last one. Moreover, Iris pollen was present on the dorsal side of 38.8% of males caught sheltering in flower models mounted near an I. atrofusca population, indicating that pollen is transferred between flowers by night-sheltering solitary male bees. We have surveyed 13 flowering populations of six Oncocyclus species for the presence of night-sheltering male bees as well as for fruit set. We found a positive correlation, indicating that sexual reproduction in Oncocyclus irises is dependent on night-sheltering solitary male bees. Based on their complete self-incompatibility, the absence of nectar-collecting visitors during the day, and the transfer of pollen grains by the night-sheltering solitary male bees, we conclude that fertilization of Oncocyclus irises is totally dependent on pollination by night-sheltering solitary male bees.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

The pollination of Bromelia antiacantha (Bromeliaceae) in southeastern Brazil: ornithophilous versus melittophilous features.

Bromelia antiacantha flowered from December to February and during this period the central leaves and bracts displayed a bright red colour. The inflorescence bears 150-350 flowers, with 10-35 flowers opening per day over 4-5 days. The flowers are dark magenta coloured with white margins, tubular-shaped with a wide opening, and their stigma is situated below the anthers. Anthesis began around 4:00 h and flowers lasted approximately 15 h. The highest nectar volume and sugar concentration occurred between 4:00-6:00 h; after this period, both decreased throughout the day. B. antiacantha is partially self-incompatible, non-autogamous, and therefore, pollinator dependent. The hummingbirds Thalurania glaucopis, Amazilia fimbriata, and Ramphodon naevius were its most frequent pollinators (55% of the visits), visiting flowers mainly in the afternoon. The scattered distribution of B. antiacantha promoted trap-lining behaviour of the hummingbirds, which favoured fruit set through xenogamy. Corolla colour, wide flower opening, sweet odour and concentrated nectar early in the day favoured bee visitation. Of the 38 % of bee visits, 96% were made by Bombus morio, mainly in the morning and their behaviour promoted self-pollination. The bee Trigona spinipes frequently acted as a pollen and nectar thief early in the morning, excluding most of the hummingbirds. Bromelia antiacantha has ornithophilous and melittophilous features, and despite being pollinated by two kinds of agents, its reproductive success depends on a given set of circumstances.

Animals↗