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PubMed2004

Play deprivation without social isolation: housing controls.

Three experiments were conducted to control for the effects of housing conditions during play deprivation on subsequent play rebound in periadolescent rats. To address play deprivation without the confound of social isolation, in Experiment 1, pairs of subjects were housed either in cages divided by wire mesh that allowed for olfactory, visual, auditory, and tactile interactions with a same-sex age-mate but prevented rough and tumble play or in standard cages. Running wheels were provided to similarly housed subjects in Experiment 2 to control for the ability to engage in physical activity. In Experiment 3, standard and brooder cages were used to control for the effects of housing area. Play-deprived subjects in all conditions showed a greatly increased number of play responses immediately following deprivation. The results from these experiments more clearly indicate that the absence of play is the crucial feature that brings about play rebound following deprivation.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1987

Sensory modulation of juvenile play in rats.

A series of experiments was conducted to determine the extent to which somatosensory stimulation is necessary for the elaboration of juvenile play in rats. Anesthetization of the dorsal body surface of juvenile rats with xylocaine reduced the frequency of pinning, an indicator variable for play, by 35% to 70%, while motivation to play, as measured by dorsal contacts, an index of play solicitation, remained largely intact. These data suggest that dorsal body surface anesthetization impairs the ability of juvenile rats to perceive and/or respond to playful gestures. When untreated animals were paired with xylocaine-treated animals, the xylocaine-treated animals consistently pinned the untreated pups more than vice versa, further suggesting that somatosensation may be involved in the establishment and/or maintenance of play dominance relations. A preliminary examination assessing potential involvement of other modalities in the play of rats was also conducted, with the data suggesting a possible role for audition in the play of this species.

Agonistic Behavior↗
PubMed1994

Variability in middle childhood play behavior: effects of gender, age, and family background.

Parent-report questionnaires for the assessment of gender-normative and gender-atypical behavior in childhood offers researchers the opportunity to conduct large-scale screenings of community samples of boys and girls. One important aspect of childhood gender role behavior includes play. Although play behavior inventories have been used clinically for the identification of gender disturbed boys, recent community-based surveys of play behavior in both genders are lacking. The present postal questionnaire survey of parents of 688, 6- to 10-year-old children (boys = 333, girls = 355) attending one public school district (74% of the eligible sample), clarifies how subject's age, family race/ethnicity, and socioeconomic status influence gender differences in play. Significant gender differences were detected for 63 of the 69 games. With but few exceptions, the magnitude of the gender differences in play remained relatively constant across middle childhood. Older boys and girls decreased their participation in activities numerically dominated by girls whereas the reverse was true for male-dominated activities. Parents' educational level influenced play for only a minority of items. Finally, whereas race/ethnicity significantly predicted game/activity participation in approximately one half of the items, a consistent influence of this variable on gender-related play did not emerge. In spite of dramatic changes in women's roles in the U.S. society over the past three decades, gender differences in middle childhood play have remained strong.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

The playmate and play style preferences structured interview: a comparison of children with gender identity disorder and controls.

The present study compared the sex-typed preferences for playmates and play styles in children referred for concerns about their gender identity development (199 boys, 43 girls) with that of controls (96 boys, 38 girls). Each child was administered the Playmate and Play Style Preferences Structured Interview (PPPSI) developed by Alexander and Hines (Alexander, G. M., & Hines, M. (1994). Child Development, 65, 869-879). In the two single dimension conditions (playmates and play styles), the controls significantly preferred same-sex playmates and same-sex play styles whereas the gender-referred children significantly preferred cross-sex playmates and cross-sex play styles. Effect sizes ranged from 1.56-2.78. In the conflict condition (which required a choice between same-sex playmates and cross-sex play styles vs. cross-sex playmates and same-sex play styles), there was a general indication of a hierarchical preference for the preferred play style in the single dimension condition as opposed to the preferred playmate except for the gender-referred boys, who showed an inverted pattern. For the gender-referred group, the PPPSI data were significantly correlated with other measures of sex-typed behavior, providing evidence of predictive validity. The PPPSI also discriminated between probands threshold and subthreshold for the diagnosis of gender identity disorder. The results were discussed in relation to both basic and applied issues in the assessment of sex-typed behavior in children.

Child↗
PubMed1982

Anosmia and play fighting behavior in prepubescent male and female rats.

Prepubescent male and female rats were paired after intranasal treatment with isotonic zinc sulfate or saline solutions to determine the influence of peripheral anosmia upon play fighting behavior. In Experiment 1, male isolate residents pinned intruders significantly more often than intruders pinned residents but anosmia treatment had no influence on pinning behavior. In Experiment 2, males and females differed significantly in all major categories of play fighting but anosmia treatment had no influence on play fighting of either males or females. In Experiment 3, male groups matched for play fighting behavior prior to intranasal zinc or saline treatment were paired with like-treated males. All males in all pairings engaged in play behavior but anosmic males played less than controls. Evidently, intranasal zinc treatment depresses play behavior only when both members of a pair are anosmic. Play behavior is more markedly affected by resident-intruder status and by gender than by peripheral anosmia.

Aggression↗
PubMed1982

Septal lesions increase play fighting in juvenile rats.

Play fighting is a behavior exhibited by juveniles of many mammalian species, but the neurology of this behavior is poorly understood. In the present study lesions of the septal area or control operations were performed in rats at 23 days of age and social play was studied between the ages of 27-41 days of age. Septal lesions increased the frequency of play fighting and play initiation in both sexes; within the lesion and control groups males played more frequently and initiated more play bouts than females. Animals with septal lesions were somewhat lighter in body weight than controls, but since play frequency and body weight were not associated, it is unlikely that changes in body weight caused by the lesions are responsible for the effects of the lesions on play.

Aggression↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Increasing toy play among toddlers with multiple disabilities in an inclusive classroom: a more-to-less, child-directed intervention continuum.

We evaluated a more-to-less, child-directed continuum of interventions to increase toy play among toddlers with multiple disabilities in an inclusive classroom. In keeping with recommended practices in early intervention, all procedures were conducted within the toddlers' classroom. Following initial observations of three toddlers (under 3 years of age) that indicated toy play was less frequent than that of their typically developing peers, preference assessments were conducted of selected toys. The toddlers were then provided with repeated choices of preferred toys in a child-directed manner. Two of the toddlers subsequently received staff prompts and praise for toy play, representing a less child-directed (i.e., more staff-directed) intervention component, in addition to choices of preferred toys. Overall, toy play as well as nonprompted toy play increased for one toddler during the former condition and for two toddlers during the latter condition. For two of the toddlers, toy play increased to a level commensurate with that of their classmates who did not have disabilities. Small increases also occurred in the number of toys played with by each toddler. Results are discussed in terms of how intervention procedures can be applied along a more- to less-child-directed continuum based on individual child responsiveness to respective procedures. Areas for future research discussed include applying the continuum with other child behaviors, including more advanced toy play.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1996

D2 dopamine receptor involvement in the rough-and-tumble play behavior of juvenile rats.

By using dorsal contacts and pinning to quantify play behavior in juvenile rats, it was found that the D2 agonist, quinpirole, reduced both measures of play at doses greater than 0.05 mg/kg. Eticlopride, a D2 antagonist, also reduced both measures of play and blocked the reduction caused by quinpirole. The effect of quinpirole on play was largely unaffected by concurrent administration of either a D1 agonist (SKF 38393) or a D1 antagonist (SCH 23390), suggesting that D1 and D2 receptors are functionally independent with respect to play behavior. Quinpirole also reduced overall activity, suggesting that the effects on play may not be selective to neural circuitry responsible for play behavior. Although low doses of quinpirole (0.001--0.03 mg/kg) had a tendency to increase pinning, this effect was not very robust. These data suggest that D2 dopamine receptors may not have a major role in the control of play behavior in juvenile rats.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1984

Symbolic play in normal and language-impaired children.

The symbolic play of 15 normally developing (CA, 16-22 months) and 15 language-impaired children (CA, 32-49 months), whose productive language skills were at the single-word utterance level, was compared. Symbolic play was assessed formally through the Symbolic Play Test and informally through the observation of spontaneous play. The language-impaired children were found to be developmentally advanced when compared to the language-matched normal children in the level and direction of their symbolic play. Relative to age norms, however, the language-impaired children evidenced deficits in symbolic play. Thus, their linguistic and symbolic play abilities were not equally impaired. These findings are discussed in terms of their implications for the relationship between symbolic play and language and for the nature of specific language impairment.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1992

Symbolic play development in toddlers with expressive specific language impairment (SLI-E).

Twenty toddlers with expressive specific language impairment (SLI-E) and 20 toddlers with normal language development were compared in their symbolic play development. The groups did not differ in amount of engagement with the toys or in functional conventional play behaviors. However, the children with SLI-E displayed less decentered play (use of play schemes with a doll or another person), less well-developed sequential play, and fewer occurrences of symbolic play transformations (use of a neutral object or an absent object to carry out pretending). The provision of structure in the form of thematically related toy sets, instructions, and modeling did not reduce the discrepancy between demonstrated play behaviors of toddlers with SLI-E and their normally developing peers. Three possible explanations for this discrepancy are considered: a "stylistic" difference in play, a developmental lag in symbol use, or a deficit in retrieval of stored symbolic representation.

Child Behavior↗
PubMed1999

Guiding language development: how African American mothers and their infants structure play interactions.

This investigation explored how African American mothers and their infants at the single-word stage of development structured their play and communicated with one another. Six mother-child dyads of low socioeconomic status (SES) and six of middle SES were observed at play. Few group differences were found, with the majority of the differences involving language behaviors. The middle-SES dyads included language goals more often in their play. Middle-SES infants initiated play verbally more frequently and produced over twice as many vocalizations as their low-SES peers. In addition, middle-SES mothers used a wider variety of words when playing with their children than their low-SES counterparts. A range of play styles was found within both groups. These were categorized into three general play styles: mothers and children actively involved in play; mothers' involvement varied; and children actively engaged and mothers attentive.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1998

Play in children with prenatal cocaine exposure: development and implications for assessment.

Play assessment of children with prenatal cocaine exposure is discussed in terms of the developmental play level and behaviors manifest during spontaneous play and the clinical implications for assessing such children. Studies have found a number of subtle differences in the play skills of children with prenatal cocaine exposure compared to children with no cocaine exposure, however, sensitive outcome measures are needed to capture these subtle developmental differences. Suggestions for assessing play, an early developmental skill, using multidimensional play analyses that incorporate developmental play levels and associated play behaviors, such as initiation and perseveration are discussed.

Cocaine-Related Disorders↗
PubMed1996

Play behavior in toddlers with in utero cocaine exposure: a prospective, masked, controlled study.

Play behavior was compared between toddlers with in utero cocaine exposure and controls of similar low socioeconomic status enrolled at birth in a prospective, masked study. At 18 and 24 months, 83 cocaine-exposed and 93 control toddlers were videotaped playing on their own for 15 minutes. An observer who was off-site and unaware of project purpose or drug exposure status of toddlers recorded the most cognitively complex play activity per 15-second interval. In a total of 315 play sessions, the groups did not differ in middle and highest level of play achieved at either 18 or 24 months (p > or = .27). After controlling for confounders, the proportions of play behavior in each of six play categories were similar in the two groups at both 18 and 24 months (p > or = .42). We conclude that in utero cocaine exposure was not associated with differences in play behavior in this cohort of cocaine-exposed and control toddlers.

Child, Preschool↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Behavioral characteristics of infants with nonorganic failure to thrive during a play interaction.

PURPOSE: To examine the behavioral responses of infants with nonorganic failure to thrive (NOFTT) during play interactions with their mothers. DESIGN: Comparative descriptive. METHODS: The sample consisted of 31 infants; 17 with nonorganic failure to thrive (NOFTT) and 16 matched healthy controls. The infants were videotaped during a play interaction with their mothers. The behaviors exhibited by the infants were scored with the Parent-Child Early Relational Assessment. The environmental context of the play interaction was also rated for how play was initiated, maternal involvement, and the presence of chaos. RESULTS: Infants with NOFTT exhibited more difficult behaviors during play such as more negative affect, less vocalizing, and more gaze aversion. Mothers of the infants with NOFTT were less likely to remain involved during the play interaction. The environments of the infants with NOFTT were also found to be more chaotic during play. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: Assessment of the infant-mother interaction during play may provide insight into the interactions that occur during other caretaking activities. Strategies could be developed to assist the mother with interacting with her difficult infant. Future research could lead to interventions that could help improve the dynamics of the infant-mother interaction in infants with NOFTT.

Child Development↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Universal, developmental, and variable aspects of young children's play: a cross-cultural comparison of pretending at home.

Using longitudinal data from five Irish American families in the United States and nine Chinese families in Taiwan, in conjunction with an emerging body of evidence in the cultural psychology literature, we propose universal, culturally variable, and developmental dimensions of young children's pretend play. Possible universal dimensions include the use of objects, and the predominantly social nature of pretend play. Developmental dimensions include increases in the proportion of social pretend play initiated by the child, the proportion of partner initiations elaborated upon by the child, and caregivers' use of pretend play initiations to serve other, nonplay social functions. Culturally variable dimensions include the centrality of objects, the participation of specific play partners, the extent of child initiations of social pretend play with caregivers, the various functions of social pretend play in interaction, and specific themes. These findings raise the theoretical issue of how universal and variable dimensions of pretend play interact in specific communities to create distinctive development pathways.

Child Development↗
PubMed2002

Effects of perinatal exposure to PCBs and dioxins on play behavior in Dutch children at school age.

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) and dioxins are known as neurotoxic compounds that may modulate sex steroid hormones. Steroid hormones play a mediating role in brain development and may influence behaviors that show sex differences, such as childhood play behavior. In this study we evaluated the effects of perinatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs and dioxins on childhood play behavior and whether the effects showed sex differences. As part of the follow-up to the Dutch PCB/dioxin study at school age, we used the Pre-School Activity Inventory (PSAI) to assess play behavior in the Rotterdam cohort (n = 207). The PSAI assesses masculine or feminine play behavior scored on three subscales: masculine, feminine, and composite. Prenatal exposure to PCBs was defined as the sum of PCB 118, 138, 153, and 180 in maternal and cord plasma and breast milk. For breast milk we measured additional PCBs as well as 17 dioxins. Respondents returned 160 questionnaires (age 7.5 years +/- 0.4). Effects of prenatal exposure to PCBs, measured in maternal and cord plasma, on the masculine and composite scales were different for boys and girls (p <.05). In boys, higher prenatal PCB levels were related with less masculinized play, assessed by the masculine scale (p(maternal) =.042; p(cord) =.001) and composite scale (p(cord) =.011), whereas in girls higher PCB levels were associated with more masculinized play, assessed by the composite scale (p(PCBmilk) =.028). Higher prenatal dioxin levels were associated with more feminized play in boys as well as girls, assessed by the feminine scale (p =.048). These effects suggest prenatal steroid hormone imbalances caused by prenatal exposure to environmental levels of PCBs, dioxins, and other related organochlorine compounds.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Play and preschool children with autism.

OBJECTIVES: This research focused on two questions. First, how does the play of children with autism differ from that of normally developing children? Second, what are the relationships between play performance and adaptive abilities? METHOD: Nine children with autism and nine children without dysfunction were matched by mental age, gender, and socioeconomic status. Play performance was determined from videotapes of children playing in their homes. Parents provided information on children's adaptive abilities. RESULTS: The children with autism differed from their peers on the total play score and the participation dimension of the Preschool Play Scale. Communication, as measured by the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, was the adaptive ability most highly associated with play performance of the children with autism. CONCLUSION: The results suggest that deficits in social development are a primary feature of autism. The findings support the use of play to evaluate and develop the interpersonal skills and habits of preschool children with this disorder.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The relationship between playfulness and coping in preschool children: a pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: Effective play and coping skills may be important determinants of children's adaptive behavior. Play and coping have undergone extensive individual study; however, these two variables have not been explored in relationship to each other. METHOD: The play behaviors of 19 randomly selected preschool children were rated by researchers using The Test of Playfulness. The children's coping skills were rated by their teachers with the Coping Inventory. RESULTS: A positive, significant correlation was found between children's level of playfulness and their coping skills. Overall, girls were rated as more playful than boys and scored higher in coping skills. Younger children (36-47 months of age) were rated as better players and copers than older children (47-57 months of age). CONCLUSION: This pilot study supports occupational therapy intervention in children's play environments and playful interactions as a way of influencing their adaptability in all life skills.

Adaptation, Psychological↗