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PubMed2005

Aflatoxin contamination of commercial maize products during an outbreak of acute aflatoxicosis in eastern and central Kenya.

In April 2004, one of the largest aflatoxicosis outbreaks occurred in rural Kenya, resulting in 317 cases and 125 deaths. Aflatoxin-contaminated homegrown maize was the source of the outbreak, but the extent of regional contamination and status of maize in commercial markets (market maize) were unknown. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to assess the extent of market maize contamination and evaluate the relationship between market maize aflatoxin and the aflatoxicosis outbreak. We surveyed 65 markets and 243 maize vendors and collected 350 maize products in the most affected districts. Fifty-five percent of maize products had aflatoxin levels greater than the Kenyan regulatory limit of 20 ppb, 35% had levels > 100 ppb, and 7% had levels > 1,000 ppb. Makueni, the district with the most aflatoxicosis case-patients, had significantly higher market maize aflatoxin than did Thika, the study district with fewest case-patients (geometric mean aflatoxin = 52.91 ppb vs. 7.52 ppb, p = 0.0004). Maize obtained from local farms in the affected area was significantly more likely to have aflatoxin levels > 20 ppb compared with maize bought from other regions of Kenya or other countries (odds ratio = 2.71; 95% confidence interval, 1.12-6.59). Contaminated homegrown maize bought from local farms in the affected area entered the distribution system, resulting in widespread aflatoxin contamination of market maize. Contaminated market maize, purchased by farmers after their homegrown supplies are exhausted, may represent a source of continued exposure to aflatoxin. Efforts to successfully interrupt exposure to aflatoxin during an outbreak must consider the potential role of the market system in sustaining exposure.

Aflatoxins↗
PubMed2005

Assessment of severe malnutrition among hospitalized children in rural Kenya: comparison of weight for height and mid upper arm circumference.

CONTEXT: Severe malnutrition has a high mortality rate among hospitalized children in sub-Saharan Africa. However, reports suggest that malnutrition is often poorly assessed. The World Health Organization recommends using weight for height, but this method is problematic and often not undertaken in practice. Mid upper arm circumference (MUAC) and the clinical sign "visible severe wasting" are simple and inexpensive methods but have not been evaluated in this setting. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate MUAC and visible severe wasting as predictors of inpatient mortality at a district hospital in sub-Saharan Africa and to compare these with weight-for-height z score (WHZ). DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Cohort study with data collected at admission and at discharge or death. Predictive values for inpatient death were determined using the area under receiver operating characteristic curves. Participants were children aged 12 to 59 months admitted to a district hospital in rural Kenya between April 1, 1999, and July 31, 2002. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: MUAC, WHZ, and visible severe wasting as predictors of inpatient death. RESULTS: Overall, 4.4% (359) of children included in the study died while in the hospital. Sixteen percent (1282/8190) of admitted children had severe wasting (WHZ < or =-3) (n = 756), kwashiorkor (n = 778), or both. The areas under the receiver operating characteristic curves for predicting inpatient death did not significantly differ (MUAC: 0.75 [95% confidence interval, 0.72-0.78]; WHZ: 0.74 [95% confidence interval, 0.71-0.77]) (P = .39). Although sensitivity and specificity for subsequent inpatient death were 46% and 91%, respectively, for MUAC less than or equal to 11.5 cm, 42% and 92% for WHZ less than or equal to -3, and 47% and 93% for visible severe wasting, the 3 indices identified different sets of children and were independently associated with mortality. Clinical features of malnutrition were significantly more common among children with MUAC less than or equal to 11.5 cm than among those with WHZ less than or equal to -3. CONCLUSIONS: MUAC is a practical screening tool that performs at least as well as WHZ in predicting subsequent inpatient mortality among severely malnourished children hospitalized in rural Kenya. Visible severe wasting is also a potentially useful sign at this level, providing appropriate training has been given.

Anthropometry↗
PubMed2003

Partial cranium of Cercopithecoides kimeui Leakey, 1982 from Rawi Gully, southwestern Kenya.

The Rawi Gully, located on the Homa Peninsula in southwestern Kenya, has produced several fossil elements of a large cercopithecid from sediments approximately 2.5 million years old (Ma). Nearly all of these elements appear to represent a single adult male individual of the colobine species Cercopithecoides kimeui Leakey, 1982. Part of the face, mandible, dentition, and several small postcranial fragments were collected by the Homa Peninsula Paleoanthropological Project (HPPP) in 1994 and 1995. This individual also appears to be represented by material collected in two previous expeditions to the site, one led by David Pilbeam in the 1970s and an earlier expedition led by L.S.B. Leakey in 1933. This specimen may extend the first appearance of C. kimeui by approximately 500 Kyr, and provides the first evidence for much of the male facial morphology in this species. Furthermore, Rawi may represent a more wooded habitat than the other occurrences of C. kimeui at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania, and Koobi Fora, Kenya, indicating that C. kimeui may have been relatively flexible in its habitat preferences.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Distribution of immunoglobulin allotypes among local populations of Kenya olive baboons.

In this paper we report on the distributions of immunoglobulin allotypes among 564 olive baboons collected at six localities in Kenya. The sample localities and sizes are 1) Lake Magadi, N = 107; 2) Nanyuki, N = 77; 3) Lake Baringo, N = 55; 4) Mosiro, N = 132; 5) Isiolo, N = 36; 6) Gilgil, N = 157. Gm allotypes 1, 10, 13, 15, and 17 are polymorphic among these samples. Gm(11) and Km(3) were present in all samples, and Gm(2,3,5,6,14,16,21,24,26) and Km(1) were absent from all samples. The proportions of individuals positive for polymorphic allotypes varied substantially between different local samples, as did the arrays and estimated frequencies of haplotypes. Allotype frequencies in local samples do not appear to be simply related to either geographic location or habitat characteristics of the localities. Our data suggest that much of the geographic variability in Kenya olive baboon populations occurs between populations separated by small geographic distances.

Alleles↗
PubMed1992

New species of bushbaby from the middle Miocene of Maboko Island, Kenya.

A mandible recovered from ca. 15 million year old deposits of Maboko Island, Kenya, represents the first bushbaby known from the middle Miocene. The specimen is from a new species of Komba, a genus previously known from early Miocene occurrences in western Kenya and northeastern Uganda. Komba is revised, with emended diagnoses proposed for the genus, type-species, and referred species. Komba sp. nov. is distinguished by its larger size and differences of molar cusp acuity, buccal cingulum expression, and mental foramen configuration. Contrary to previous opinion, species of Komba probably diverged prior to the last common ancestor of extant Galaginae, and it is unlikely that they represent early stages of living bushbaby species lineages. Although contemporary Progalago is widely regarded as a galagine, aspects of upper molar, lower premolar, and mandibular corpus morphology indicate that it is more closely related to lorisines. Unlike the greater success currently enjoyed by bushbabies, lorisines were more diverse and almost as abundant as galagines in the early Miocene of eastern Africa.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Low frequency of deafness-associated GJB2 variants in Kenya and Sudan and novel GJB2 variants.

A large proportion of non-syndromic autosomal recessive deafness (NSARD) in many populations is caused by variants of the GJB2 gene. Here, the frequency of GJB2 variants was studied in 406 and 183 apparently unrelated children from Kenya and Sudan, respectively, with mostly severe to profound non-syndromic deafness. Nine (2.2 %) Kenyan and 12 (6.6 %) of the Sudanese children only were carriers of variants within the coding sequence of the GJB2 gene. Variants in the 5'-adjacent region were detected in further 115 individuals. A total of 10 novel variants was recognized, among them four variants in the adjacent 5'-region of the GJB2 coding exon 2 (g.3318-6T>A, g.3318-15C>T, g.3318-34C>T, g.3318-35T>G), a 6 base-pair deletion (g.3455_3460del [p.Asp46_Gln48delinsGlu]), a variant leading to a stop codon (g.3512C>A [p.Tyr65X]), synonymous variants (g.3395C>T [p.Thr26], g.3503C>T [p.Asn62], g.3627A>C [p.Arg104]), and one non-synonymous variant (g.3816C>A [p.Val167Met]). In addition, the previously described variants g.3352delG (commonly designated 30delG or 35 delG), g.3426G>A [p.Val37Ile], g.3697G>A [p.Arg127His], g.3774G>A [p.Val153Ile], and g.3795G>A [p.Gly160Ser] were identified. With the exception of g.3318-34C>T and g.3352delG, all variants occurred heterozygously. For most of the variants identified in the Kenyan and Sudanese study population, a causative association with NSARD appears to be unlikely. Compared to many other ethnic groups, deafness-associated variants of the coding region of GJB2 are rare in Sudan and Kenya, suggesting a role of other genetic, or epigenetic factors as a cause for deafness in these countries.

Age of Onset↗
PubMed1989

Epidemiology of hepatitis B in eastern Kenya.

A cross-sectional survey of outpatients attending the three distinct hospitals in the towns of Mombasa, Kilifi, and Malindi was conducted to determine the patterns of hepatitis B transmission in eastern Kenya. Of 1,533 study subjects (mean age 21.9 +/- 13.2 years; range, 4 months to 80 years), 11.4% were positive for HBsAg and 56.2% were seropositive for at least one hepatitis B marker (HBsAg, anti-HBs, or anti-HBc). Anti-delta antibody was found in 1.2% of HBsAg-positive samples. HBeAg was found in 36.0% of HBsAg-positive samples obtained from women of childbearing age. The prevalence of seropositivity for hepatitis B markers was positively correlated with age, increasing from 20% in subjects less than 4 years old to more than 80% in study subjects greater than 40 years old. On multivariate analysis, male sex was found to be associated with HBsAg positivity, and age and previous deliveries of children were associated with seropositivity for any hepatitis marker (HBsAg, anti-HBs, or anti-HBc). An effective hepatitis B immunization strategy in this region of Kenya would require vaccination early in life because a major portion of hepatitis B transmission occurs in childhood.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Molecular epidemiology of respiratory syncytial virus in Kilifi district, Kenya.

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) causes significant burden of disease during infancy and childhood. This study examined the genetic relatedness of RSV positive samples from child inpatients and outpatients and a birth cohort from a rural coastal district of Kenya and also the distribution of strains between these three groups. Clinical samples were collected over a 4-year period in Kilifi District, Kenya from community and hospital surveillance. Three hundred ninety seven of 1,044 nasal specimens from children (under 5 years old) attending Kilifi District Hospital, and from community-monitored infants, were positive for RSV by multiplex RT-PCR. Of these, 376 samples were analysed further by restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLP) of the nucleocapsid (N) and attachment (G) protein genes. The G gene was sequenced for 109 samples and phylogenetic analysis carried out. The group A samples from Kilifi fell into two clusters based on G gene sequences, while only one group B cluster was observed. One RSV-B sample from 2003 demonstrated the presence of a 60-nucleotide duplication within the G gene, clustering with similar isolates from Buenos Aries from 1999. All had similar sequences to isolates from the UK, USA, Spain, or Uruguay. The Kilifi District samples showed greater than 97% homology to isolates from South Africa and Mozambique and 91-94% homology to isolates from The Gambia. Samples from different sources, clearly differing in disease severity, did not differ in genotype characteristics, suggesting that disease causing variants are a general reflection of infections within this community.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed1998

Comparative dental development and microstructure of Proconsul teeth from Rusinga Island, Kenya.

Eighteen histological sections were prepared from eleven teeth attributed to Proconsul heseloni and two molar teeth attributed to Proconsul nyanzae. Measurements of spacings and counts of daily incremental markings in both enamel and dentine were possible in the majority of these tooth sections. Measurements of the spacings and angles to the enamel dentine junction (EDJ) of regular striae of Retzius and of equivalent markings in dentine were also made. In addition to these measurements, counts of perikymata were made on replicas of all other Proconsul teeth housed in the National Museum of Kenya, Nairobi, that preserved good perikymata on any aspect of their tooth surface. The sequence of crown formation in Proconsul and the crown formation times of the enamel and dentine were estimated from these data. In addition, the rates of root extension were estimated using the formula derived for this purpose by Shellis (Archs. oral Biol. 29, 697-705, 1984) and estimates of the total period of root formation subsequently made for premolar and molar teeth based on measurements of root length. A composite chart of dental development for P. heseloni is presented which suggests M3 root completion was between six and seven years of age. In general Proconsul molar teeth have high stria angles to the EDJ, a high ratio of enamel formed with respect of dentine formed at the same time, median values of rates of enamel formation close to the EDJ in excess of 4 microns per day and the occasional presence of "S-shaped" striae in the lateral enamel. There is no evidence to suggest that Proconsul from Rusinga Island, Kenya, had relatively thin enamel on molar or premolar teeth. When all of these data are considered in a comparative context, Proconsul emerges overall as hominoid-like in its enamel and dentine microstructure and as most similar to Pongo but with some features shared with Pan and Homo. Similar data for other Miocene primates will have considerable bearing on how these data are interpreted. These new data on dental microanatomy and on dental development in Proconsul make a further contribution to our understanding of the total morphological picture of this early Miocene primate.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Current research on the late Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits north of Homa Mountain, southwestern Kenya.

The late Pliocene and Pleistocene sediments of the Homa Peninsula in southwestern Kenya are richly fossiliferous, preserve Early Stone Age archaeological traces and provide one of the few paleoanthropological data sets for the region between the branches of the East African Rift Valley. This paper presents preliminary results of our ongoing investigation of late Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits at the localities of Rawi, Kanam East, Kanam Central and Kanjera. While fossils have been collected from the peninsula since 1911, little systematic effort has been made to place them into a broader litho-and chronostratigraphic framework. This project has conclusively demonstrated that fossils occur in good stratigraphic context at all of the study localities and that claims of sediment slumping (Boswell, 1935) have been greatly overstated (Behrensmeyer et al., 1995; Plummer & Potts, 1989). A provisional chronostratigraphic framework based on magneto- and biostratigraphy is presented here. We have revised the Plio-Pleistocene stratigraphy of the Rawi and Kanam gullies to include three formations: the Rawi, Abundu and Kasibos Formations. Based on magneto- and biostratigraphy, these formations are dated between approximately three and one m.y.a. (Gauss Chron-Jaramillo Subchron) (Cande & Kent, 1995). The Apoko Formation unconformably overlies the others and may be middle to late Pleistocene in age. All formations contain rich patches of fossils, and Acheulean artifacts have been surface collected from the Abundu and Kasibos Formations. Deposition of the fossil- and artefact-bearing sediments at Kanjera North began in the early Pleistocene and continued into the middle Pleistocene. Deposition at Kanjera South began over one million years earlier than previously thought, at approximately 2.2 m.y.a., and continued into the Olduvai Subchron (1.770-1.950 m.y.a.; Cande & Kent, 1995). Excavations have recovered Oldowan artefacts in association with well-preserved fossil fauna near the base of the sequence, the oldest archaeological traces yet known from southwestern Kenya.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Paleosols, stable carbon isotopes, and paleoenvironmental interpretation of Kanapoi, Northern Kenya.

This study uses the interpretation of paleosol features at Kanapoi, Kenya (4.2-3.4 Ma) to reconstruct the ecosystem occupied by Australopithecus anamensis. The paleosols at Kanapoi provide a unique and fortuitous opportunity, in that the bulk of the hominid specimens derive from paleosols, providing direct evidence of the environment that the Kanapoi hominids occupied. Seven named types of paleosols are recognized at Kanapoi, each representing a trace fossil of the local ecosystem during soil formation. The hominid-bearing Dite paleosols provide evidence that A. anamensis inhabited areas of semi-arid, seasonal climate regimes with mean annual precipitation ranging from about 350-600 mm. The in situ hominid collections from Dite paleosols show that A. anamensis at least occasionally occupied relatively open low tree-shrub savanna vegetation formed in well drained settings, and may have preferred these conditions over other poorly drained soils. The relatively open conditions of Dite paleosols existed within a spatially variable ecosystem, characterized by a mosaic of environments, ranging from forb-dominated edaphic grassland to gallery woodland, providing a larger view of the mixed ecosystem in which A. anamensis lived. Synthesis of paleoenvironmental indicators of A. anamensis at Kanapoi and Allia Bay, Kenya suggests that as early as 4 Ma hominids thrived in varied ecosystems.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Dental remains of Equatorius africanus from Kipsaramon, Tugen Hills, Baringo District, Kenya.

Forty-one isolated large hominoid teeth, as well as most of the mandibular and three maxillary teeth associated with a partial skeleton, were recovered from middle Miocene Muruyur sediments near Kipsaramon in the Tugen Hills, Baringo District, Kenya. The isolated teeth were collected as surface finds and the skeleton was excavated in situ at locality BPRP#122 dated between 15.58 Ma and 15.36 Ma. The majority of the teeth recovered at BPRP#122 are referable to a minimum of five individuals of the hominoid Equatorius africanus. Three of the teeth, however, are provisionally assigned to Nyanzapithecus sp. The new hominoids from Kipsaramon add to an increasing inventory of specimens that suggest greater large hominoid taxonomic diversity from the middle Miocene of Kenya than was previously recognized. It is suggested that there are two large-bodied hominoid species present at Mabako, only one of which is assignable to Equatorius.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

A reassortant bunyavirus isolated from acute hemorrhagic fever cases in Kenya and Somalia.

In late 1997 and early 1998, a large outbreak of hemorrhagic fever occurred in East Africa. Clinical samples were collected in Kenya and southern Somalia, and 27 of 115 (23%) hemorrhagic fever patients tested showed evidence of acute infection with Rift Valley fever (RVF) virus as determined by IgM detection, virus isolation, detection of virus RNA by reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), or immunohistochemistry. However, two patients (one from Kenya and the other from Somalia) whose illness met the hemorrhagic fever case definition yielded virus isolates that were not RVF. Electron microscopy suggested these two virus isolates were members of the family Bunyaviridae. RT-PCR primers were designed to detect bunyavirus RNA in these samples. Regions of the S and L segments of the two isolates were successfully amplified, and their nucleotide sequences exhibited nearly complete identity with Bunyamwera virus, a mosquito-borne virus not previously associated with severe human disease. Unexpectedly, the virus M segment appeared to be reassorted, as the sequences detected exhibited 32-33% nucleotide and 28% amino acid differences relative to the corresponding M segment sequence of Bunyamwera virus. The association of this reassortant bunyavirus, proposed name Garissa virus, with severe disease is supported by the detection of the virus RNA in acute-phase sera taken from 12 additional hemorrhagic fever cases in the region.

Animals↗
PubMed1979

The economic effects of trypanosomiasis in sheep and goats at a range research station in Kenya.

A study on the economic effects of naturally acquired trypanosomiasis in sheep and goats over a period of 35 weeks under range conditions in the Kiboko area of Kenya indicated that the financial loss from reduced weight gain and death amounted to 36.2 and 62.9 Kenya shillings per head for goats and sheep respectively. This was derived from the weight loss through death together with the reduced weight gain of the survivors compared with treated animals. The study also compared the efficacy of 3 drug regimes in goats and suggests that although quinapyramine (prophylactic) B.vet.C. provided the longest protective period, the weight increase of the stock under isometamidium chloride treatment was higher. The benefits of the drugs used are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1982

Production characters of the Sahiwal and Ayrshire breeds and their crosses in Kenya.

Data were analysed for lactation character of Ayrshire, Ayrshire x Sahiwal, Sahiwal x Ayrshire and Sahiwal females and on survival and growth characters of progeny of Ayrshire, Sahiwal, Simmental and Mixed breed sires mated to these females in the temperate highlands ecological zone of Kenya. The Ayrshire females had significantly higher total lactation yield than the other breeding groups; however, the Ayrshire females received preferential treatment. Despite this the Sahiwal-Ayrshire crosses were superior (3.8%) to the Ayrshire females in productivity index per cow per year because of a shorter calving internal and a higher level of calf survival. Sahiwal females had significantly lower total lactation yield than Ayrshire and Sahiwal x Ayrshire cross females. At 2 years of age female progeny of Sahiwal and Simmental sires were significantly heavier than the female progeny of Ayrshire sires but not of Mixed breed sires, viz. Sahiwal x Ayrshire and calves with sires not known. The Ayrshire breed was shown to be superior to the Sahiwal breed in transmitted effects for milk production and the Sahiwal breed was superior to the Ayrshire breed in transmitted effects for growth rate. It is concluded that the Sahiwal breed has potential to contribute to both milk and beef production programmes when combined in crosses with Bos taurus breeds of cattle in ecological zones similar to the lower to mid-potential areas of the temperate highlands of Kenya.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Successful transfer of frozen N'Dama embryos from the Gambia to Kenya.

Frozen embryos from N'Dama cattle were successfully transferred from The Gambia to Kenya. Of the 26 N'Dama cows used 12 were successfully programmed to superovulate and of these seven produced 30 embryos that were collected seven days after oestrus/service. Five N'Dama bulls were used for natural service. In Kenya 29 embryos were implanted into 29 Boran heifers seven days (+/- 1) after the induction of synchronised oestrus. Eleven pregnancies were established and after one abortion of unknown aetiology at seven and a half months five female and five male calves were born and subsequently reared. During programming the N'Dama cows showed prolonged anoestrus leading to the necessity of oestrus induction using intravaginal progesterone releasing coils; pregnant mare serum gonadotrophin gave better superovulation than follicle stimulating hormone. One N'Dama bull proved to be subfertile. The success of the project has demonstrated the potential of this technique to make disease-free N'Dama available for research purposes and for the promotion of livestock development programmes in tsetse-infested areas using trypanotolerant cattle.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Environmental security: a geographic information system analysis approach--the case of Kenya.

Studies into the relationships between environmental factors and violence or conflicts constitute a very debated research field called environmental security. Several authors think that environmental scarcity, which is scarcity of renewable resources, can contribute to generate violence or social unrest, particularly within states scarcely endowed with technical know-how and social structures, such as developing countries. In this work, we referred to the theoretical model developed by the Environmental Change and Acute Conflict Project. Our goal was to use easily available spatial databases to map the various sources of environmental scarcity through geographic information systems, in order to locate the areas apparently most at risk of suffering negative social effects and their consequences in terms of internal security. The analysis was carried out at a subnational level and applied to the case of Kenya. A first phase of the work included a careful selection of databases relative to renewable resources. Spatial operations among these data allowed us to obtain new information on the availability of renewable resources (cropland, forests, water), on the present and foreseen demographic pressure, as well as on the social and technical ingenuity. The results made it possible to identify areas suffering from scarcity of one or more renewable resources, indicating different levels of gravity. Accounts from Kenya seem to confirm our results, reporting clashes between tribal groups over the access to scarce resources in areas that our work showed to be at high risk.

Conflict, Psychological↗
PubMed2004

Community based interventions as a strategy to combat desertification in the arid and semi-arid rangelands of Kajiado District, Kenya.

Vegetation degradation, especially the disappearance of woody vegetation and a diminished grass cover, has aroused the concern of the Maasai community (semi-nomadic pastoralists) of Kajiado District, Kenya. The district is one of Kenya's arid and semi-arid districts. Over recent years, they have observed their land resources deteriorate due to the desertification process caused by the land use practices of man. They have identified indicators of desertification such as increase of bare lands, which have been invaded by previously unknown grasses and weeds that are of no economic value, and also the disappearance of some useful plant species. It is due to the above concerns that a group of 30 farmers have been very keen to participate in on-farm research to strategize on ways to halt and even reverse the desertification process. The participatory research has identified useful trees that the farmers have been planting around homesteads, as woodlots on their farms to provide woodfuel, shade, and to act as windbreaks. They have also identified species for planting as live fences instead of using thorny tree branches as fencing material, which contributes further to the desertification process. Due to the termite menace on young tree seedlings, the farmers use indigenous knowledge to prepare concoctions using locally available materials, which they apply to planting holes and on seedlings. During awareness campaigns, the farmer research group highlights the need to conserve vegetation resources and also expounds on the concept of planting two trees after one is felled.

Agriculture↗