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PubMed2005

A methodology for assessing blast protection in explosive ordnance disposal bomb suits.

To reduce human casualties associated with explosive ordnance disposal, a wide range of protective wear has been designed to shield against the blast effects of improvised explosive devices and munitions. In this study, 4 commercially available bomb suits, representing a range of materials and armor masses, were evaluated against 0.227 and 0.567 kg of spherical C-4 explosives to determine the level of protection offered to the head, neck, and thorax. A Hybrid III dummy, an instrumented human surrogate [1], was tested with and without protection from the 4 commercially available bomb suits. 20 tests with the dummy torso mounted to simulate a kneeling position were performed to confirm repeatability and robustness of the dummies, as well as to evaluate the 4 suits. Correlations between injury risk assessments based on past human or animal injury model data and various parameters such as bomb suit mass, projected area, and dummy coverage area were drawn.

Blast Injuries↗
PubMed1980

Noise-abatement method for explosives testing.

When Lawrence Livermore Laboratory started detonating explosives at its Site 300 test location in the sparsely populated hills east of the Laboratory, residents in neighboring areas complained of sudden loud noises. A combined literature and research study, coupled with an experimental test program, indicated the combination of air temperatures and winds at various elevations was primarily responsible for blast or sound waves being returned to the surface. To solve the noise problem, the Laboratory devised a method for determining the maximum amount of explosives that could be detonated aboveground under various atmospheric conditions without creating excessive noise in populated areas. This method for predicting explosives weight limits using pressure-distance-weight nomograms and the slope of a sound-velocity curve is described in this paper. The sound-velocity curve is computed with temperature information from the U.S. Weather Bureau and wind data from a target-acquisition radar system. By following this method, the Laboratory has been able to detonate thousands of shots without creating excessive noise in nearby communities.

Explosions↗
PubMed1994

A short history of fires and explosions caused by anaesthetic agents.

The first recorded fire resulting from the use of an anaesthetic agent occurred in 1850, when ether caught fire during a facial operation. Many subsequent fires and explosions have been reported, caused by ether, acetylene, ethylene and cyclopropane, and there has been one reported explosion involving halothane. Although some of the earlier incidents caused more consternation than injury, many of the later ones caused much death and destruction, particularly after the practice of administering oxygen, instead of air, became established. Many incidents have never been reported and many of those which have reached publication do not record essential details. The use of flammable agents has decreased significantly in recent years and although fires and explosions from nonanaesthetic causes, for example gastrointestinal gases, skin sterilizing agents and laser surgery, may continue to occur, those from gaseous and volatile anaesthetic agents may now be of historical interest only. This article reviews some of the more relevant and enlightening reports of the past 150 yr.

Acetylene↗
PubMed2001

Diving-related fatalities caused by underwater explosions: a report of two cases.

The authors report two cases of diving-related water blast with fatal outcome resulting from nearby underwater explosions. Water blast with fatal outcome almost exclusively occurs in wars at sea. Underwater explosions are extremely rare in diving because of the limited exposure. Forensic findings in both cases reported included expected injuries to gas-filled organs such as the middle ear, lungs, and intestine; some rarely described injuries such as rupture of the liver, spleen, and kidneys; and also some lesions that were not found in a search of the literature: rupture of the heart and contusion of the hypophysis. Injuries caused by fatal underwater explosions should be carefully evaluated in forensic medicine to provide data that may support a criminal investigation.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Estimation of body exposure to explosion.

An ordnance-disposal expert was killed while disposing of a cache of explosives. The likely position of the body was reconstructed by modeling the explosion as an omnidirectional emission of particles from a model of the explosion site and noting the distribution of particles on a model of a human. The applications and limitations of this method in reconstructing the events and correlation with the injuries noted at autopsy are discussed.

Accidents, Occupational↗
PubMed1989

Primary blast injury after a bomb explosion in a civilian bus.

A 6-kg explosive charge detonated under a seat in the center of a crowded city bus in Jerusalem, killing three passengers immediately. Of the 55 survivors, all of whom were transferred to two major medical centers, 29 were hospitalized. Among those admitted, a high rate of primary blast injuries was found, including perforated ear drums (76%), blast lung (38%), and abdominal blast injuries (14%). Two of the latter patients suffered bowel perforations, which were diagnosed with considerable delay. Eight patients (31%) had sustained life-threatening trauma, consisting of a combination of primary, secondary, and tertiary blast injuries. The overall mortality rate was 10.3%. The large number of primary blast injuries, including the unexpected finding of bowel perforations, is explained by the high amplitude of the air pressure wave (3.8-5.2 atm) and its relatively long duration (2-3 msec) resulting from the detonation of the high-energy explosive charge in the small, enclosed space of the bus. Besides the usual wounds sustained by victims of an explosion that occurs in a confined space, the possibility of primary blast injury to the abdomen and to the lungs should be taken into account by the treating surgeon.

Abdominal Injuries↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Characteristics of burn patients injured in methamphetamine laboratory explosions.

The use of methamphetamine (MA) as a recreational drug has increased exponentially in recent years, resulting in an emergence of clandestine laboratories. Consequently, the frequency with which burn centers across the country are admitting patients injured as a consequence of the volatile manufacturing process of MA is increasing. This study focused on comparing outcomes between burn patients injured secondary to MA laboratory explosions and patients sustaining burns from other mechanisms. All patients identified to have suffered burns secondary to MA laboratory explosions between 1998 and 2004 were included in this study. These patients were compared with those who did not experience such burns during this same time period. In total, 19 patients were identified as having been burned in MA laboratory explosions. These patients had a larger component of third-degree burns (24.8% vs 13.5%; P < .05) as well as TBSA burned (28.4% vs 20.7%; P < .05). In addition, patients using MA had an increased incidence of inhalation injury (31.2% vs 6.1%; P < .05). They also exhibited a significantly increased frequency of complications, such as nosocomial pneumonia, respiratory failure, and sepsis. Overall, the rate of mortality was significantly increased in patients using MA (26.3% vs 8.5%; P < .05); however, no significant difference was observed after adjustment for age, burn size, and inhalation injury. MA burn patients have larger burn size, incidence of inhalation injury, and increased morbidity when compared with non-MA burn patients.

Accidents↗
PubMed2005

Bronchial tear in a child after a liquid petroleum gas tank explosion.

Humans have been exposed to blast effects since the invention of gunpowder and explosives. Bronchial injury because of an explosion is a rare but lethal injury that requires prompt recognition and treatment. In this article, we present a case of a bronchial tear after an explosion.

Bronchi↗
PubMed2004

Trace explosives detection by photoluminescence.

Some field tests in counter-terrorism efforts to detect explosive traces employ chemistries that yield colored products. We have examined a test kit of this kind, ETK(Plus), based on widely used chemistries and employed extensively by the Israel Police. Our investigation focuses on the prospect of gaining sensitivity by replacing the normal colorimetric modality with photoluminescence detection, which, to our knowledge, has not been explored to date. We find two or more orders of magnitude sensitivity gains for all explosives studied, using field-worthy photoluminescence techniques. We have also investigated a general lanthanide-based photoluminescence approach which shows promise and the ability to photoluminescence-detect trace explosives in the presence of intense background color and/or background fluorescence by time-resolved imaging.

Chromatography, Paper↗
PubMed2005

Standoff detection of high explosive materials at 50 meters in ambient light conditions using a small Raman instrument.

We have designed and demonstrated a standoff Raman system for detecting high explosive materials at distances up to 50 meters in ambient light conditions. In the system, light is collected using an 8-in. Schmidt-Cassegrain telescope fiber-coupled to an f/1.8 spectrograph with a gated intensified charge-coupled device (ICCD) detector. A frequency-doubled Nd : YAG (532 nm) pulsed (10 Hz) laser is used as the excitation source for measuring remote spectra of samples containing up to 8% explosive materials. The explosives RDX, TNT, and PETN as well as nitrate- and chlorate-containing materials were used to evaluate the performance of the system with samples placed at distances of 27 and 50 meters. Laser power studies were performed to determine the effects of laser heating and photodegradation on the samples. Raman signal levels were found to increase linearly with increasing laser energy up to approximately 3 x 10(6) W/cm2 for all samples except TNT, which showed some evidence of photo- or thermal degradation at higher laser power densities. Detector gate width studies showed that Raman spectra could be acquired in high levels of ambient light using a 10 microsecond gate width.

Environmental Monitoring↗
PubMed1995

Explosion risk from swimming pool chlorinators and review of chlorine toxicity.

Two patients were admitted to the hospital emergency room in respiratory distress after an accidental explosion involving chlorinating agents for the swimming pool. The two primary agents involved were calcium hypochlorite and trichloro-s-triazinetrione; both are commonly used chlorinating agents. These chemicals were tested in a bomb apparatus measuring temperature and gas production. Combining the two chlorinators at 2, 6, 12, or 18 g of each produced a progressive increase in gas production from 234 to 1422 mL. The temperature increased from 30 degrees C at 2 g to 63 degrees C at 18 g. The time to complete the reaction decreased from 6.2 minutes at 2 g to 3.8 minutes at 18 g. The third run at the 18 g level resulted in an explosion. The results indicate that gas generation is dependent on both products. The addition of organic material was abandoned because of the explosive nature of the reaction. The amount of calcium hypochlorite primarily determines the rate of reaction and heat generation. Appropriate emergency action and treatment for chlorine gas is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Physical and chemical evidence remaining after the explosion of large improvised bombs. Part 1: firings of ammonium nitrate/sugar and urea nitrate.

Recent criminal acts in the United Kingdom, United States and other countries have demonstrated the dangers to public safety from the criminal use of improvised explosives on a large scale. Four sets of trials were carried out over four years, partly in collaboration with the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation, involving the firing of large bombs, mostly fertilizer based. The principal objectives of the firings were to measure the physical effects of the explosions upon objects representative of those that would be found at a real bomb scene and to recover any chemical traces deposited on these objects. The results are intended for use as an aid in determining the approximate size and type of an explosive employed in a terrorist attack. This paper describes the background behind the trials, the procedures for preparation of witness materials and charges, and the collection and analysis of physical and chemical evidence.

Criminology↗
PubMed2000

Physical and chemical evidence remaining after the explosion of large improvised bombs. Part 2: Firings of calcium ammonium nitrate/sugar mixtures.

Six test firings of large improvised explosive devices were carried out. The principal objectives of the firings were to measure the physical effects of the explosions upon representative objects placed nearby and to recover any chemical traces deposited on these objects. The results are intended for use as an aid in determining the approximate size and type of an explosive employed in terrorist attacks. Three 454 kg charges of a mixture of calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) fertilizer and sugar, and three 2268 kg charges of a similar mixture, all confined in cylindrical steel containers were fired. Each charge was surrounded by 19 road signs mounted on posts and four vehicles, to act as witness materials. The analysis of aqueous swab extracts taken from the witness materials after firing showed the recovery of nitrate, ammonium and low levels of glucose. No sucrose was detected. Nitrate was usually recovered in greater quantities than ammonium and recovery generally decreased with increasing distance from the charges in any given direction. Quantities recovered from objects placed at the same distance in different directions varied considerably. Patterns of physical damage to the witness materials could be discerned according to their distance from the charge and the size of the charge. The velocities of detonation and air blast effects were measured.

Criminology↗
PubMed1975

Systematic analysis of explosive residues.

A scheme for systematic analysis of explosive residues is presented and demonstrated by test explosions using commercial, military, and homemade explosives. The significance of reaction product identification is demonstrated.

Chromatography, Thin Layer↗
PubMed2001

The natural sampling of airborne trace signals from explosives concealed upon the human body.

An experimental study of the natural sampling of trace signals from explosives concealed upon the human body was performed by taking proper account of the thermal behavior of the air surrounding the human body and the particles therein. Experiments were conducted in a dispersal chamber to identify variables affecting the detectibility of concealed RDX and TNT patches. Movement by human volunteers was found to enhance the available explosive trace signal above a baseline level. Clothing blocked some of this movement-generated trace signal. The detected signal levels were also found to vary significantly from volunteer to volunteer, indicating that human variability is an issue in explosive trace detection. Further, under the conditions studied here, the detectibility of RDX and TNT was dependent upon the efficient sampling of contaminated particulate matter, not the vapor phase. The present results are now being applied to the design of a practical, nonintrusive trace detection portal for aviation security screening and related applications.

Air↗
PubMed1975

Instrument safety in explosive atmospheres.

The current "Energy Crisis" has dramatically increased our potential need for coal, the worlds most abundant fossil fuel. This will probably lead to a greater use of automation and instrumentation in the coal mining industry. The presence of methane in coal mines and in the coal itself plus the presence of coal dust, both of which can form an explosive atmosphere in air, means that the possibility of a gas or coal dust ignition must be considered when designing, purchasing and installing new equipment in this industry. In addition, many metallurgical processes involve the use of potentially explosive substances against which similar safety precautions must be taken. This paper outlines the various methods of protection currently in use and proposed for electrical instruments in explosive atmospheres, with particular emphasis on the work of the International Electrotechnical Commission.

Accident Prevention↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Terrorist explosions--medical aspects].

In this paper we present the review of medical and organizational aspects of terroristic explosion as a type of urban disaster. We have focused on consequences of the explosion of unfragmented explosive devices, particularly regarding the type and localization of injuries. The definitions of urban disaster is given and organizational problems in these situations are classified.

Explosions↗
PubMed2003

Optimization of the separation of organic explosives by capillary electrophoresis with artificial neural networks.

The separation of 12 explosives by capillary electrophoresis was optimized with the aid of artificial neural networks (ANNs). The selectivity of the separation was manipulated by varying the concentration of sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) and the pH of the electrolyte, while maintaining the buffer concentration at 10 mM borate. The concentration of SDS and the electrolyte pH were used as input variables and the mobility of the explosives were used as output variables for the ANN. In total, eight experiments were performed based on a factorial design to train a variety of artificial neural network architectures. A further three experiments were required to train ANN architectures to adequately model the experimental space. A product resolution response surface was constructed based on the predicted mobilities of the best performing ANN. This response surface pointed to two optima; pH 9.0-9.1 and 60-65 mM SDS, and pH 8.4-8.6 and 50-60 mM SDS. Separation of all 12 explosives was achieved at the second optimum. The separation was further improved by changing the capillary to an extended cell detection window and reducing the diameter of the capillary from 75 microm to 50 microm. This provided a more efficient separation without compromising detection sensitivity.

Aniline Compounds↗