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PubMed2005

Cue interaction effects in causal judgement: an interpretation in terms of the evidential evaluation model.

In judging the extent to which a cue causes an outcome, judgement can be affected by information about other cues that are correlated with the one being judged. These cue interaction effects have usually been interpreted in terms of associative learning processes. I propose that a different model of causal judgement, the evidential evaluation model, offers a viable alternative interpretation of cue interaction phenomena. Under the evidential evaluation model, instances of contingency information are interpreted as evidence, which is confirmatory, disconfirmatory, or irrelevant for the cue being judged. When two cues co-occur in a set of instances the evidential value of the instances for one of them is determined by three factors: the proportion of confirming instances in the set; disambiguation value, which concerns the relation between the set of information and prior beliefs about the co-occurring cue; and confirmation value, which concerns the relation between the set of information and prior beliefs about the cue being judged. Any previous judgement of the cue is then modified in the light of these. It is shown that this model can account for all the cue interaction phenomena that have been investigated in studies of human causal judgement. The model also generates novel predictions, and the results of three experiments give support to these predictions. It is also shown that several other current models of causal judgement fail to predict a key result from Experiment 3.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2006

Cues resulting in desire for sexual activity in women.

INTRODUCTION: A number of questionnaires have been created to assess levels of sexual desire in women, but to our knowledge, there are currently no validated measures for assessing cues that result in sexual desire. A questionnaire of this nature could be useful for both clinicians and researchers, because it considers the contextual nature of sexual desire and it draws attention to individual differences in factors that can contribute to sexual desire. AIM: The aim of the present study was to create a multidimensional assessment tool of cues for sexual desire in women that is validated in women with and without hypoactive sexual desire disorder (HSDD). METHODS: Factor analyses conducted on both an initial sample (N = 874) and a community sample (N = 138) resulted in the Cues for Sexual Desire Scale (CSDS) which included four factors: (i) Emotional Bonding Cues; (ii) Erotic/Explicit Cues; (iii) Visual/Proximity Cues; and (iv) Implicit/Romantic Cues. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Scale construction of cues associated with sexual desire and differences between women with and without sexual dysfunction. RESULTS: The CSDS demonstrated good reliability and validity and was able to detect significant differences between women with and without HSDD. Results from regression analyses indicated that both marital status and level of sexual functioning predicted scores on the CSDS. The CSDS provided predictive validity for the Female Sexual Function Index desire and arousal domain scores, and increased cues were related to a higher reported frequency of sexual activity in women. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from the present study provide valuable information regarding both internal and external triggers that can result in sexual desire for women. We believe that the CSDS could be beneficial in therapeutic settings to help identify cues that do and do not facilitate sexual desire in women with clinically diagnosed desire difficulties.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Adult-child differences in acoustic cue weighting are influenced by segmental context: children are not always perceptually biased toward transitions.

It has been proposed that young children may have a perceptual preference for transitional cues [Nittrouer, S. (2002). J. Acoust. Soc. Am. 112, 711-719]. According to this proposal, this preference can manifest itself either as heavier weighting of transitional cues by children than by adults, or as heavier weighting of transitional cues than of other, more static, cues by children. This study tested this hypothesis by examining adults' and children's cue weighting for the contrasts /saI/-/integral of aI/, /de/-/be/, /ta/-/da/, and /ti/-/di/. Children were found to weight transitions more heavily than did adults for the fricative contrast /saI/-/integral aI/, and were found to weight transitional cues more heavily than nontransitional cues for the voice-onset-time contrast /ta/-/da/. However, these two patterns of cue weighting were not found to hold for the contrasts /de/-/be/ and /ti/-/di/. Consistent with several studies in the literature, results suggest that children do not always show a bias towards vowel-formant transitions, but that cue weighting can differ according to segmental context, and possibly the physical distinctiveness of available acoustic cues.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Prefrontal task-related activity representing visual cue location or saccade direction in spatial working memory tasks.

To examine what kind of information task-related activity encodes during spatial working memory processes, we analyzed single-neuron activity in the prefrontal cortex while two monkeys performed two different oculomotor delayed-response (ODR) tasks. In the standard ODR task, monkeys were required to make a saccade to the cue location after a 3-s delay, whereas in the rotatory ODR (R-ODR) task, they were required to make a saccade 90 degrees clockwise from the cue location after the 3-s delay. By comparing the same task-related activities in these two tasks, we could determine whether such activities encoded the location of the visual cue or the direction of the saccade. One hundred twenty one neurons exhibited task-related activity in relation to at least one task event in both tasks. Among them, 41 neurons exhibited directional cue-period activity, most of which encoded the location of the visual cue. Among 56 neurons with directional delay-period activity, 86% encoded the location of the visual cue, whereas 13% encoded the direction of the saccade. Among 57 neurons with directional response-period activity, 58% encoded the direction of the saccade, whereas 35% encoded the location of the visual cue. Most neurons whose response-period activity encoded the location of the visual cue also exhibited directional delay-period activity that encoded the location of the visual cue as well. The best directions of these two activities were identical, and most of these response-period activities were postsaccadic. Therefore this postsaccadic activity can be considered a signal to terminate unnecessary delay-period activity. Population histograms encoding the location of the visual cue showed tonic sustained activation during the delay period. However, population histograms encoding the direction of the saccade showed a gradual increase in activation during the delay period. These results indicate that the transformation from visual input to motor output occurs in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. The analysis using population histograms suggests that this transformation occurs gradually during the delay period.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Schizophrenic patients' sensitivity to social cues: the role of abstraction.

OBJECTIVE: Since individuals with schizophrenia often have difficulty with abstract tasks, they should have more problems recognizing abstract social cues (e.g., inferences regarding actors' affect and goals) than concrete cues (e.g., observations of actors' behavior and dialogue). Moreover, recognition of abstract and concrete cues should interact with the level of emotional arousal engendered by the situation; previous research has shown that schizophrenic patients perform better on cue recognition tasks when the situation produces moderate rather than low levels of arousal. METHOD: These hypotheses were tested in 24 patients with schizophrenia diagnosed according to the DSM-III-R criteria and 15 normal comparison subjects. All subjects viewed eight short vignettes of interpersonal situations that produce low and moderate levels of arousal. They then answered questions representing perception of abstract and concrete cues that had been matched for difficulty and consistency. RESULTS: The schizophrenic patients were significantly less sensitive to interpersonal cues than the normal subjects. The patients were also less sensitive to abstract than to concrete social cues, and for them there was a significant interaction between cue abstraction level and situational arousal. Specifically, the schizophrenic subjects performed worse on the abstract cue recognition task for the low-arousal situations. CONCLUSIONS: Findings regarding the social cue recognition patterns of schizophrenic patients could play an important role in the development of valid measures of social cognition for this population.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Testosterone suppresses circadian responsiveness to social cues in the diurnal rodent Octodon degus.

The diurnal, social rodent Octodon degus displays a robust sex difference in the ability to use social cues to facilitate reentrainment following a phase advance of the light cycle. Adult females housed with a female social cue donor reentrained 25% to 40% faster than did females reentraining alone. However, reentrainment rates of males were unaffected by exposure to female social cues during reentrainment. The authors hypothesized that males were less sensitive to the reentrainment-enhancing effects of social cues and that their higher threshold to the stimuli could be overcome if the social cues were either increased in strength or salience. Housing a male with two females significantly shortened the time to reentrain following a 9-h phase advance (p = 0.002). Housing with a sister had no effect on reentrainment. Therefore, male degus are able to respond to social cues but require the stimulus to be stronger than that for females. The effect of testosterone was tested by comparing reentrainment rates of castrated males before and after testosterone replacement both with and without a female social cue donor. Castrated males responded to a single female social cue donor, reentraining 35% faster than when housed alone (p = 0.006), whereas the time to reentrainment of intact males and males with testosterone capsule implants did not differ. Intact females were also implanted with testosterone and phase shifted with and without donors. Testosterone treatment eliminated the increase in reentrainment rates in the presence of social cues. The authors conclude that the rate of recovery from odor-enhanced phase shifts is modulated by activational effects of testosterone in male degus. Testosterone is also effective in suppressing social cue responsiveness in females, suggesting that testosterone's effects on responsiveness are not sexually dimorphic. This hormonal effect likely occurs by altering sensory system functions or CNS response to sensory information.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Reactivity to alcohol-related cues in heavy and light drinkers.

Physiological responses and self-reported desire for alcohol were compared in heavy (n = 21) and light (n = 29) drinkers under each of two cue conditions. The cues were presented in a counterbalanced order and consisted of the sight, smell and taste of the subject's preferred alcoholic beverage (alcohol cue) and of a nonalcoholic lemon-flavored drink (neutral cue). Heavy drinkers showed a significant linear increase in reported desire for alcohol over time in the presence of the alcohol cue. This persistent increase in desire for alcohol seen in heavy drinkers contrasted with the initial increase shown by light drinkers which dissipated over time. Neither group showed any significant change in desire for alcohol when presented with the neutral cue. Heavy drinkers showed lower levels of skin conductance than light drinkers and all subjects showed changes in heart rate during exposure to both cues. Heart rate was affected differentially in the two groups of drinkers but only when the alcohol cue was presented first. Neither blood pressure nor stress and arousal levels changed significantly from pre- to post-cue presentations. The findings of this study have implications for understanding the nature and time course of cue-elicited desire for alcohol and its potential role in the development and treatment of alcohol dependence.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Goal-driven modulation of stimulus-driven attentional capture in multiple-cue displays.

Six location-cuing experiments were conducted to examine the goal-driven control of attentional capture in multiple-cue displays. In most of the experiments, the cue display consisted of the simultaneous presentation of a red direct cue that was highly predictive of the target location (the unique cue) and three gray direct cues (the standard cues) that were not predictive of the location. The results indicated that although target responses were faster at all cued locations relative to uncued locations, they were significantly faster at the unique-cue location than at the standard-cue locations. Other results suggest that the faster responses produced by direct cues may be associated with two different components: an attention-related component that can be modulated by goal-driven factors and a nonattentional component that occurs in parallel at multiple direct-cue locations and is minimally affected by the same goal-driven factors.

Attention↗
PubMed1998

Knowing what to remember and forget: a developmental study of cue memory in intentional forgetting.

These experiments are the first to investigate children's encoding and use of information about a memory cue in Bjork's (1972) intentional forgetting task. In Experiment 1, children in Grades 2, 4, and 6 and college students were given cues to either remember or forget after the presentation of each picture. Recall and recognition tests of pictures and cues followed. The procedure in Experiment 2 was identical to that in Experiment 1 except that the list of presentation pictures was altered for some children (Grades 3 and 4) and adolescents (Grades 8 and 9) so that remember and forget cues were associated with particular taxonomic categories. In Experiment 3, the testing component was modified so that children (Grades 2, 3, and 4) and college students were asked to recall only the cue associated with each picture. The results indicated that (1) children as young as second graders encode the cue associated with each picture, although to a lesser extent than do college students, (2) much improvement in intentional forgetting is still occurring during adolescence, (3) only adults adequately cluster their recall by cue, (4) associating remember and forget cues with items from different categories does not increase the differentiation between cues, and (5) eliminating picture recall and recognition has minimal effects on the magnitude of cue judgments. These results suggest that children's difficulties on intentional forgetting tasks stem, at least in part, from their poorer encoding of information about whether an item should be remembered or forgotten.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

[Differential visual attention scales directed by location versus semantic cue].

OBJECTIVE: To compare the cortical mechanisms associated with visual spatial attention directed by location cues and Chinese character cues. METHOD: Eleven healthy adults (mean age=19) with normal vision served as the subjects. In experiment I, the cue was a circle with black solid line. There were three cue sizes: small, medium and large. In experiment II, three black concentric circles were presented as background, their diameters were the same as the three cues used in experiment I. The cue was one of three Chinese characters small, medium or large respectively. The task of the subjects was to discriminate the target's orientation. RESULT: RT in experiment II was longer with short ISI. The anterosuperior N1 amplitude elicited by the cue in experiment II was larger than that in experiment I. The inferoposterior P1 latency in experiment II was longer than that in experiment I. Comparing the target evoked ERP, the inferoposterior P1 and N1, latency of experiment II was longer than that in experiment I, the inferoposterior P2 amplitude in experiment II was larger than that in experiment I. CONCLUSION: The processing of Chinese cue takes place at higher level functional brain regions compared to processing of location cue. The later requires more resource in the earlier stage of cue process and less in the subsequent stage of the task.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Effects of long-term gait training using visual cues in an individual with Parkinson disease.

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: In an attempt to improve the gait of people with Parkinson disease (PD), researchers have examined the effect of visual cues placed on the floor. These studies typically have used a single session of training with such cues and have not examined the long-term carryover of such training. In the present study, therefore, gait was analyzed during uncued, cued, and retention phases, each lasting 1 month. SUBJECT: A 78-year-old woman who had been diagnosed with PD 12 years previously (Hoehn and Yahr classification of disability, stage III) volunteered for the study. METHODS: During the initial uncued gait phase, the subject was required to walk a distance of 10 m as many times as she could in 30 minutes, 3 times per week for 4 weeks. During the 4-week cued gait phase, visual cues were placed on the floor along the 10-m walkway. The cues were initially 110% of the uncued step length and were later increased to 120%. Following this cued gait phase, the subject's gait was recorded periodically for 1 month without cues available. Step length, gait speed, and 2-dimensional lower-limb kinematics were compared within and across the 3 experimental phases. Celeration lines were calculated for the initial uncued phase and then extrapolated across the cued training and uncued retention phases. Binomial tests were used to analyze the significance of changes from the initial phase of the experiment. RESULTS: Step length (0.53-0.56 m) and gait speed (0.77-0.82 m x s(-1)) were essentially unchanged during uncued gait training after the first day; however, during the cued gait phase, gait speed improved, from 0.87 m x s(-1) to 1.13 m x s(-1), as step length was increased with visual cues. Improvements in step length (0.68 m) and gait speed (1.08 m x s(-1)) were still evident 1 month following the removal of the cues. Analyses of angle-angle diagrams and phase-plane portraits revealed that training with visual cues increased hip and knee range of motion and engendered more stable motor control of the lower limb. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION: In contrast to previous studies in which the benefits of visual cueing were relatively short-lived, in this study, 1 month of gait training with visual cues was successful in establishing a lasting improvement in gait speed and step length while increasing the stability of the underlying motor control system.

Aged↗
PubMed1998

Conditioned responses elicited by experimentally produced cues for smoking.

Several theories of drug-craving postulate that a signal for drug elicits conditioned responses. However, depending on the theory, a drug cue is said to elicit drug similar, drug compensatory, positive motivational, and negative motivational effects. Since animal data alone cannot tease apart the relative importance of different cue-related processes in the addict, we developed and examined a model of drug cues in the human based on a two-sound, differential conditioning procedure using smoking as the reinforcer. After multiple pairings of a sound with smoking, there was a preference for the smoking cue on a conditioned preference test. The acute effects of smoking (increased heart rate, respiration rate, skin conductance level, skin conductance fluctuations, EEG beta power and trapezius EMG, decreased alpha power) were not affected by the smoking cue, although subjects drew more on their cigarette in the presence of the smoking cue than in the presence of a control cue. Moreover, the cue did not change baseline behaviour except for a possible increase in EEG beta power and an increase in trapezius EMG at about the time when smoking should have occurred. The findings confirm the value of experimental models of drug cues in the human for comparing different cue phenomena in the dependent individual. They indicate that an acquired signal for drug in the human may elicit incentive motivational effects and associated preparatory motor responses in addition to possible conditioned tolerance.

Acute-Phase Reaction↗
PubMed1996

Use of proximal and distal cues in place navigation by mice changes during ontogeny.

The ontogeny of the ability of C57BL/6 mice to use different cues for spatial learning was examined in several Morris water maze tasks. In the first two studies, three learning procedures were used, in which only distal cues (place learning), only proximal cues (cue learning), or both proximal and distal cues (cue + place learning) were pertinent to localize the platform. The results indicated that whatever the procedure, 22-day-old mice showed the same capabilities as adults. Moreover, in the cue + place-learning procedure, although the distal cues were not necessary to solve the task, both young and adult mice demonstrated the integration of distal information by exhibiting a strong spatial bias during a probe test. However, in the third experiment, it was shown that nonpertinent proximal cues perturbed 22-day-old mice in a place-learning procedure. Taken together, these results suggest that while even the youngest mice show striking spatial navigation abilities, young mice give greater importance to proximal cues for orientation whereas adults preferentially use distal information.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Effects of lateralized cues on the processing of lateralized auditory stimuli.

We examined the influence of auditory spatial cues on the processing of subsequently presented lateralized auditory target stimuli. In three experiments, effects of the position of the cue on event-related potentials (ERPs) and reaction times (RTs) to the target, which could occur at the same or at a different position to the cue, were examined. In Experiments I and II, stimulus-pairs were delivered via loudspeakers 13 degrees to the right or left of fixation. The cue was task-irrelevant in the sense that it never required a response, whereas the target was task-relevant. In Experiment I, the cue was not informative about the position of the succeeding target, that is, the target was presented at the same or at a different position to the cue with equal probability. In Experiment II, the cue predicted a target with high validity, occurring at the position opposite to the cue. In both experiments, the ERPs to targets presented at the same position as the preceding cue were negatively modulated compared with the ERPs to targets presented at a different position. This negative difference (Nd) between the ERPs to same and different position stimuli occurring between 200-300 ms relative to target onset was also obtained in situations where no overt behavior was required. Effects of cue position on RTs to the target were only observed in Experiment II, being shorter for validly predicted targets. These Nd effects either reflect refractoriness of location-specific exogeneous ERP components or involuntary attentional selection. In order to decide between these alternatives, a third experiment was performed, in which stimulus-pairs were presented via headphones to the left and right ear in attend and ignore condition. An Nd effect was obtained in the attend condition only. The absence of Nd effects in the ignore condition suggests that the Nd obtained in attend condition cannot completely be explained by refractoriness of exogeneous ERP components and thus reflects attentional processes.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Cattle use visual cues to track food locations.

We tested the hypothesis that cattle aided by visual cues would be more efficient than uncued animals in locating and consuming foods placed in either fixed or variable locations within a 0.64-ha experimental pasture. Eight yearling steers were randomly selected and trained to associate traffic barricades and traffic cones with high- (oat-barley mixture) and low- (straw) quality foods, respectively. Initially steers were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 food location/visual cue treatments: fixed locations/with cues (F/C), variable locations/with cues (V/C), fixed locations/no cues (F/NC), or variable locations/no cues (V/NC). High- and low-quality foods and their respective cue (or no cue) were placed in the experimental pasture. Individual animals were allowed to explore the pasture for 10 min twice per day every other day for 1 week. Minutes until feeding, first feed type consumed (i.e., high-quality, low-quality, or no food consumed), animal location and activity (i.e., feeding, standing, or moving), and total intake of high- and low-quality feed were recorded during each 10-min trial. At the end of each week, location/visual cue treatments were randomly assigned to another 2 steers, which permitted an independent test of each animal in each treatment over a 4-week period. Animals in the F/C and V/C treatments took about 2 min to initially locate and consume a food, compared to F/NC and V/NC animals who took nearly 4 and 6 min, respectively. The high-quality food was the first food located and consumed by F/C, V/C, F/NC, and V/NC animals during 79, 77, 67, and 54% of sampling occasions, respectively. Cued animals typically spent more time feeding (P=0.0004) and less time standing (P=0.005) than uncued animals. Cued animals had a higher mean intake than uncued animals of high- (P=0.001) and low- (P=0.04) quality food. Mean high-quality intake for F/C, V/C, F/NC, and V/NC treatments was 266, 245, 214, and 126 (+/-22) g, respectively; mean low-quality intake for the same treatments was 36, 32, 12, and 10 (+/-10) g. Cued animals also consumed more food per distance traveled than uncued animals (P=0.005). Animals located food quicker (P=0.03) and consumed more high-quality food (P=0.02) when food locations were constant than when they were variable. Our data strongly indicate that cattle can learn to associate visual cues with disparate food qualities and use this information to forage more efficiently in both fixed and variable foraging environments.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2002

What determines visual cue reliability?

Visual environments contain many cues to properties of an observed scene. To integrate information provided by multiple cues in an efficient manner, observers must assess the degree to which each cue provides reliable versus unreliable information. Two hypotheses are reviewed regarding how observers estimate cue reliabilities, namely that the estimated reliability of a cue is related to the ambiguity of the cue, and that people use correlations among cues to estimate cue reliabilities. Cue reliabilities are shown to be important both for cue combination and for aspects of visual learning.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2003

The influence of phonemic awareness development on acoustic cue weighting strategies in children's speech perception.

In speech perception, children give particular patterns of weight to different acoustic cues (their cue weighting). These patterns appear to change with increased linguistic experience. Previous speech perception research has found a positive correlation between more analytical cue weighting strategies and the ability to consciously think about and manipulate segment-sized units (phonemic awareness). That research did not, however, aim to address whether the relation is in any way causal or, if so, then in which direction possible causality might move. Causality in this relation could move in 1 of 2 ways: Either phonemic awareness development could impact on cue weighting strategies or changes in cue weighting could allow for the later development of phonemic awareness. The aim of this study was to follow the development of these 2 processes longitudinally to determine which of the above 2 possibilities was more likely. Five-year-old children were tested 3 times in 7 months on their cue weighting strategies for a /so/-/[symbol in text]o/ contrast, in which the 2 cues manipulated were the frequency of fricative spectrum and the frequency of vowel-onset formant transitions. The children were also tested at the same time on their phoneme segmentation and phoneme blending skills. Results showed that phonemic awareness skills tended to improve before cue weighting changed and that early phonemic awareness ability predicted later cue weighting strategies. These results suggest that the development of metaphonemic awareness may play some role in changes in cue weighting.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Modulation of LIP activity by predictive auditory and visual cues.

The lateral intraparietal area (area LIP) contains a multimodal representation of extra-personal space. To further examine this representation, we trained rhesus monkeys on the predictive-cueing task. During this task, monkeys shifted their gaze to a visual target whose location was predicted by the location of an auditory or visual cue. We found that, when the sensory cue was at the same location as the visual target, the monkeys' mean saccadic latency was faster than when the sensory cue and the visual target were at different locations. This difference in mean saccadic latency was the same for both auditory cues and visual cues. Despite the fact that the monkeys used auditory and visual cues in a similar fashion, LIP neurons responded more to visual cues than to auditory cues. This modality-dependent activity was also seen during auditory and visual memory-guided saccades but to a significantly greater extent than during the predictive-cueing task. Additionally, we found that the firing rate of LIP neurons was inversely correlated with saccadic latency. This study indicates further that modality-dependent differences in LIP activity do not simply reflect differences in sensory processing but also reflect the cognitive and behavioral requirements of a task.

Acoustic Stimulation↗