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PubMed2004

Every cloud has a silver lining: interpersonal and individual differences determinants of anger-related behaviors.

Two studies examined the effect of status and liking of the anger target on anger behavior and individual differences in anger-related behavior. Participants recalled anger instances in which the anger target was of higher/equal/lower status and/or liked/ unfamiliar/disliked; subsequently, they indicated which behaviors they had displayed. In both studies, anger behaviors could be grouped into behaviors that imply approaching the target (anger-out, assertion, reconciliation) and behaviors that reflect avoidance/anger-in or social sharing. The results demonstrated that approach behaviors more likely occur toward lower status or liked targets; avoidance behaviors and social sharing more likely occur when the target is of higher status or disliked. On an individual differences level, an approach and an avoid/social sharing person class were identified. The findings suggest that anger may motivate prosocial behavior or social sharing, depending on the individual and type of relation with the target. Only few gender differences were found.

Adolescent↗

PubMed2004

Anger response styles and blood pressure: at least don't ruminate about it!

BACKGROUND: Research on anger suggests a link with blood pressure (BP), but the findings are complex and highly variable; this is at least partly attributable to measurement issues. PURPOSE: In this study we used a new model of anger responding that comprises 6 independent anger response styles in 2 dimensions: Aggression, Assertion, Social Support Seeking, Diffusion, Avoidance, and Rumination. Linear and interactive relations between the anger response styles and resting and ambulatory BP were tested, controlling for traditional risk factors and level of hostility. METHODS: Data from 2 samples of different cardiovascular health status were examined. In Study 1, 109 healthy participants (45 men and 64 women) were recruited. Study 2 involved a sample of 159 hypertensive patients (90 men and 69 women). All participants provided demographic and health information; completed the Behavioral Anger Response Questionnaire, a hostility measure; and underwent resting BP measurement. Study 2 participants also provided 24-hr ambulatory BPs. RESULTS: Examination of linear effects revealed inconsistent associations between anger response styles and BP. The moderating effect of Rumination on the relationship between the other anger response styles and BP was examined next. Rumination had a deleterious influence on the relation between Avoidance and Assertion and resting and ambulatory BP levels. The moderating influence of Rumination on Social Support Seeking varied between the genders. CONCLUSIONS: Overall, the results suggest that rumination is a critical moderating variable in the relation of anger and BP.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1989

The experience of anger in chronic illness: a preliminary investigation.

The experience of anger was investigated in relation to essential hypertension, in particular, and chronic disease states, in general. A hypertensive patient group was compared to a chronic disease control group (diabetics) and a nonpatient normotensive control group on measures of anger expression, assertiveness, and perceptions of health status. The chronic patient groups differed significantly from the nonpatient controls in reporting more anger in general, greater frequency of anger experiences, and a tendency to express anger more outwardly. The chronic patient groups also reported greater severity of health problems. Comparisons between the hypertensives and diabetics revealed a greater level of current anger among diabetics. The findings are discussed in terms of their implications for anger and chronic illness. Suggestions for future research regarding anger and hypertension also are made.

Aged↗

PubMed2000

What factors should be considered in rehabilitation: are anger, social desirability, and forgiveness related in adults with traumatic brain injuries?

This study evaluated the relationship between anger and forgiveness from a moral developmental view, in 51 adults having mild to moderate traumatic brain injuries. Individuals with brain injuries have been reported to display problematic psychosocial sequelae including anger. The Enright Forgiveness Inventory, the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale were used to evaluate the relationship between forgiveness, anger, and social desirability. A significant inverse relationship was found between anger and forgiveness, and between anger and social desirability. Additional insight was obtained from open-ended questions, a demographic sheet relating to the injury, and an anger evoking incident. Findings suggested that practitioners need to attend to psychosocial factors affecting anger when conducting rehabilitation programs with patients having brain injuries.

Adult↗

PubMed1996

Fluoxetine treatment of anger attacks: a replication study.

"Anger attacks" are outbursts of anger which are accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and are clearly inappropriate to the situation in which they occur. The Anger Attacks Questionnaire, designed to assess these attacks, was administered to 164 consecutive patients (78 men and 86 women; mean age, 40.5 +/- 11.0 years) diagnosed as having major depression with the Structured Clinical Interview for DSM-III-R. These patients were treated openly with fluoxetine, 20 mg/day for 8 weeks, and the prevalence of anger attacks was assessed before and after treatment. At baseline, 64 (39%) (26 men and 38 women) of these patients reported having anger attacks according to our criteria. Forty-one (64%) of the 64 depressed patients with anger attacks at baseline did not report anger attacks following fluoxetine treatment, while 7 (7%) of the 100 patients who did not have anger attacks at baseline reported these attacks following treatment, with this difference being statistically significant (chi 2 = 22.7, p < .0005).

Adolescent↗

PubMed2005

Effect of trait anger on cognitive processing of emotional stimuli.

In the present experiment, the authors examined whether trait anger was associated with cognitive biases for anger-related semantic stimuli. Fifty-two undergraduate students completed the Trait Anger Scale (TAS; C. D. Spielberger, G. Jacobs, S. Russell, & R. Crane, 1983), and those reporting TAS scores in the upper (n = 17) or lower (n = 13) quartiles of the sample were assigned to high- and low-anger groups, respectively. The 30 participants then engaged in a lexical decision task that presented various emotion words, neutral words, and nonwords. Results indicated that individuals who reported high levels of trait anger displayed facilitative biases in the processing of semantic anger-related stimuli. This predisposition to more readily process anger-related information may underlie their propensity to experience intense feelings of anger when provoked.

Affect↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Correlates of anger symptoms in women in middle adulthood.

BACKGROUND: Anger is of great interest to health professionals due to its relationship with disease outcomes. However, male samples have been used in most studies examining linkages between anger and health indicators. In this exploratory study, anger symptoms and their cognitive and environmental correlates were examined in a sample of 87 women in middle adulthood. METHODS: This descriptive-correlational study involved secondary analyses of data obtained in the third phase of a longitudinal study of health in middle adulthood. Data were collected with a battery of well-established self-report instruments. Descriptive statistics, t tests, and correlational and regression analysis were used. RESULTS: Significant correlates of anger symptoms included lower optimism, external health locus of control, higher frequency and severity of daily hassles, lower functional social support, and loss of important relationship(s) during the past year. Greater body mass index, inadequate sleep, lack of exercise, drinking, and use of over-the-counter drugs were also associated with anger symptomatology. DISCUSSION: Findings regarding the relationship of daily stress and anger were consistent with the Framingham Study. Contrary to expectations, women who reported more anger symptoms were not suppressors of their anger but directed it outward.

Adult↗

PubMed2000

Cognitive behavioural group anger management for out-patients: a retrospective study.

This study proposes that anger as the "forgotten emotion" (DiGiuseppe 1994), can cause distress and hardship for the individual who experiences dysfunctional anger in the form of high levels of intensity, duration and rapid onset as well as causing distress to those who observe or are victims of the behavioural responses to anger It is very difficult to calculate the cost of dysfunctional anger to an individuals physical well being and relationships, or to society in general. The author suggests the costs are immense. With this in mind anger management training has gradually emerged in differing forms and from different psychotherapeutic alliances. However, very little outcome data is available to clinicians which may highlight the benefits or deficits of such programmes. To this aim, and using Novaco's (1994) model of anger the author has attempted to address this issue. Twenty three subjects (Ss) attended for screening assessment six group treatment sessions and a three month follow-up session of anger management based on Cognitive Behavioural approaches. The groups were small in number of between 3-6 Ss. All the Ss were from the out-patient, primary care setting, and none of them were compulsory required to attend the sessions. Quantitative data was collected using the 1994 Novaco Anger Scale, (NAS), and scientifically analysed. Qualitative data was collected using a semi-structured post treatment interview, and some of the comments are discussed. The quantitative data showed significant gains across all measures from pre to post treatment. No gains were made during the period spent (3-6 months) on the waiting list. The results and findings are discussed in relation to therapeutic value and service planning.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed2000

Anger, irrational beliefs, and dysfunctional attitudes in violent dating relationships.

The purpose of the present investigation was to evaluate whether perpetrators of dating violence could be differentiated from their nonviolent counterparts on measures of anger and cognitive distortion, specifically Ellis's (1994) irrational beliefs and Beck's (1976) dysfunctional attitudes. Of the 95 male and 152 female undergraduates surveyed, 27% (24 males and 43 females) reported using some form of physical aggression against their current dating partner in the past year. On a self-report measure of anger (State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory), violent individuals reported higher levels of Anger Out and lower levels of Anger Control compared to nonviolent participants. While there were no differences between violent and nonviolent participants' levels of Trait Anger, the results suggest that violent individuals have difficulty controlling angry feelings when they arise, which may increase the likelihood of externally directed forms of anger expression. No significant group differences emerged on questionnaire measures of irrational beliefs and dysfunctional attitudes. Within the violent sample, there was no differential pattern of correlations between measures of anger and cognition relative to the nonviolent sample. The present data suggest that while trait-based measures of cognitive distortion explain little variance in self-reported acts of dating violence, future research should investigate whether (a) cognitive distortions are present during affect-inducing partner conflict situations, or (b) vary with violence severity.

Adult↗

PubMed2001

Assessment of mode of anger expression in adolescent psychiatric inpatients.

Anger can play an important role in depression and suicide risk among adolescents. The present study evaluated internalized and externalized anger in 92 adolescent psychiatric inpatients. Results indicated that adolescents who internalized their anger were more likely to be depressed and to experience feelings of hopelessness. In addition, adolescents who internalized their anger made more serious suicide attempts than did those who externalized their anger. In contrast, adolescents who externalized their anger were more likely to have alcohol-related problems. Thus, different modes of anger expression appear to be related to different manifestations of psychopathology. It was concluded that assessment of mode of anger expression in adolescents may enhance our understanding of suicide and its risk factors.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Anger dysregulation, depressive symptoms, and health in married women and men.

BACKGROUND: Anger problems (anger dysregulation) and depressive symptoms have been linked to risk for all causes of mortality, but less is known about the association between anger dysregulation and depressive symptoms within the context of gender differences and health outcomes. OBJECTIVES: The association between anger dysregulation, depressive symptoms, and self-reports of health in married adults was evaluated using an emotion-regulation model. METHODS: Fifty-two married couples completed a series of procedures that included an interview assessing their ability to regulate anger, a questionnaire reporting depressive symptoms (Beck Depression Inventory) and self-reports indicating health. RESULTS: Results provided support for hypothesized links between the variables, but they varied by gender: (a) greater anger dysregulation in the wives, but not the husbands, was predictive of depressive symptoms; (b) anger dysregulation was predictive of the husbands' self-reports of health but was not predictive of the wives' self-reports of health; (c) depressive symptoms were not significantly associated with self-reports of health for either married women or men. DISCUSSION: These results suggest that anger dysregulation may play different roles in the depressive symptoms and self-reports of health for married women and men.

Adult↗

PubMed1992

Display rules for anger and aggression in school-age children.

2 related studies addressed the development of display rules for anger and the relation between use of display rules for anger and aggressiveness as rated by school peers. Third, fifth, and seventh graders (ages 8.4, 10.9, and 12.8, respectively) gave hypothetical responses to videotaped, anger provoking vignettes. Overall, regardless of how display rules were defined, subjects reported display rules more often with teachers than with peers for both facial expressions and actions. Reported masking of facial expressions of anger increased with age, but only with teachers. Girls reported masking of facial expressions of anger more than boys. There was a trend for aggressive subjects to invoke display rules for anger less than nonaggressive subjects. The phenomenon of display rules for anger is complex and dependent on the way display rules are defined and the age and gender of the subjects. Most of all, whether children say they would behave angrily seems to be determined by the social context for revealing angry feelings; children say they would express anger genuinely much more often with peers than with teachers.

Aggression↗

PubMed2006

Frequency and direction of competitive anger in contact sports.

AIM: The purpose of the present study was to investigate whether athletes involved in physical contact sports may interpret their feelings of anger as facilitative of performance, and to examine differences in the interpretation of anger as a function of the type of sport (team vs individual) or the competitive skill level (high vs low). METHODS: A modified version of the State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory was administered to 100 Italian adult male athletes practicing rugby or individual combat sports (judo, freestyle wrestling, or Greco-Roman wrestling). The questionnaire was intended to measure the frequency and the direction (i.e., the facilitative-debilitative interpretation) of competitive anger. RESULTS: Many athletes engaged in contact sports tended interpret their competitive anger as facilitative of performance rather than debilitative. The type of sport and the athlete's standard level can mediate the individual's interpretation of the effects of anger symptoms upon performance. CONCLUSIONS: Competitors can interpret their anger as helpful to energize behavior and channel physical and mental resources for skill execution. Practitioners should assist athletes in gaining control over anger rather than attempting to suppress it.

Adolescent↗

PubMed1994

[Coping with anger by cardiovascular patients].

Patients with essential hypertension and coronary heart disease were compared to a healthy and clinical control group an the recently developed Müller-Anger-Coping Questionnaire (MAQ). The inventory measures the factors "Spontaneous Behavior" (f1), "Controlled Affect" (f2), "Guilt" (f3) and "Social Inhibition" (f4) as a trait. The patients, suffering from essential hypertension, in comparison to the healthy control group, showed significant differences on factors 2 to 4, indicating, that they are expressing anger to a lesser degree and that they are more likely to exhibit an anger-in/guilt coping style. The same was true for patients suffering from coronary heart disease with respect to factors 2 and 4. With respect to "Guilt" coronary heart disease patients showed a clear trend for more feelings of guilt after anger expression, as compared to the healthy control group. None of the groups showed significant differences on expressing anger-in an aggressive manner (factor 1). These results provide further evidence, that patients with cardiovascular disorders have a clear tendency to show anger to a lesser degree in an socially assertive manner and to suppress anger. If anger is expressed by these patients, they tend to feel guilty. Implications of the findings are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗

PubMed1996

Fluoxetine in the treatment of anger: an open clinical trial.

BACKGROUND: Intense anger, easy irritability, and low frustration tolerance are frequently encountered in clinical practice and may occur as part of the constellation of symptoms associated with a number of Axis I and Axis II diagnoses. Recent studies have suggested the efficacy of fluoxetine in treating anger in depressed and borderline patients. The present study examines the treatment of anger as a target symptom regardless of accompanying psychopathology. METHOD: In this preliminary trial, 11 subjects experiencing intense anger were treated in an open-label fashion with fluoxetine over an 8-week period. Anger was measured by a clinician-administered Clinical Global Impressions-Severity (CGI-S) scale and a self-report anger inventory, the Multidimensional Anger Inventory (MAI). The Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression was administered at baseline and final visits. RESULTS: All 11 enrolled patients completed the study, and all patients demonstrated clinical improvement as measured by both the CGI-S and the MAI. Nine patients were rated as responders and 2 as nonresponders according to prospectively established criteria. Fluoxetine was well tolerated and showed rapid onset of action. CONCLUSION: This study is limited by small sample size and nonblinded, open-label design, but nonetheless suggests that fluoxetine may be useful in moderating anger as it occurs as part of the symptomatology of a number of Axis I and Axis II disorders. Controlled studies are warranted.

Adult↗

PubMed1999

Experiential conceptualization and treatment of anger.

An emotionally focused conceptualization and treatment of anger is described and illustrated using the case examples of Celeste and David. This approach is based on ongoing assessment of different anger processes and states. Five sources of information for emotion assessment are outlined. Assessment distinguishes between environmentally directed and self-directed anger, between overcontrolled and underregulated anger, between painful emotion and bad feelings, and between primary, secondary, and instrumental anger. These different processes and states call for different intervention strategies. The three-phase process of emotionally focused therapy for problems with anger also is illustrated using the case examples. Intervention with David emphasized accessing overcontrolled adaptive anger, whereas the emphasis with Celeste was on exploring secondary rage to access more vulnerable experience of hurt, fear, and shame.

Adult↗

PubMed1994

Psychopathology and anger in interpersonal violence offenders.

The current literature on psychopathology and anger suggests that both contribute to interpersonal violence. The present study examined psychopathology and anger expression with two objectives: to confirm previous distinctions of personality type among abusive individuals and to examine the relation between these types and anger. Cluster analysis was conducted with data gathered from 40 subjects. Results suggested confirmation of four clusters of interpersonal violence offenders. Furthermore, the most pathological cluster type reported the highest level of total anger experience, while the histrionic cluster type reported the lowest anger expression. These results provide tentative support for a positive relationship between psychopathology and anger, as well as for the distinction between overcontrolled and under-controlled anger as subtypes of interpersonal violence offenders.

Adolescent↗

PubMedDate not supplied

Anger expression, body fat, and blood pressure in adolescents: Project HeartBeat!

This study explores the potential influence of growth, body/composition, and sexual maturity on the relation of anger expression and blood pressure in adolescents. Baseline data from Project HeartBeat! (82 boys and 85 girls, 14 years of age) examined the ability of anger expression (STAXI scale) to predict blood pressure, after controlling for the effects of ethnicity (African-American/ non-African-American), height, weight, percentage body fat, and sexual maturity. Blood pressures were unrelated to anger expression in models that included the above developmental variables. However, girls scoring high on healthy anger expression ("anger-control") had significantly lower levels of percentage body fat (P = 0.015) independent of the above factors. The literature suggests that body fat or body mass is often, though not unanimously, associated with unhealthy forms of anger expression in adolescents. Research is required into the biological, social, and behavioral origins of the association between body fat and anger expression. Height and sexual maturity, virtually ignored in this literature, should be included in future research.

Adolescent↗