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PubMed2003

The relationship between college students' schema regarding alcohol use, their television viewing patterns, and their previous experience with alcohol.

Two hundred college students participated in an experiment investigating how individuals use television and real world experiences to construct alcohol use schema. Students were asked to write a story about a student who had a difficult day and, on arriving home, fixed himself a drink. In randomly assigned conditions, directions led the student to believe this was to be either a real world scenario or the setting for a television episode. Stories were coded for setting and social nature of use, quantity of use, consequences (both severity and valence), and overall tone. In general, stories characterized alcohol use as heavy, social, relaxing, and resulting in mostly minor consequences. Story characteristics did not differ based on direction type (real world vs. TV scenario). Students also completed a series of measures regarding television viewing habits, attitudes about alcohol use, and past experiences with use. Regarding television viewing patterns, those who watched more television overall created stories with more alcohol use. Viewing of dramas in particular was associated with less severe consequences as a result of use. In terms of personal experience with use, individuals who had driven under the influence of alcohol were more likely to construct a story with a positive tone and those who had passed out from drinking were less likely to conclude their stories with a moral tale discouraging drinking. The conclusion of this research is that both personal and observed experiences are important influencing factors in individuals' schema regarding alcohol use.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Television, computer, and video viewing; physical activity; and upper limb fracture risk in children: a population-based case control study.

UNLABELLED: The effect of physical activity on upper limb fractures was examined in this population-based case control study with 321 age- and gender-matched pairs. Sports participation increased fracture risk in boys and decreased risk in girls. Television viewing had a deleterious dose response association with wrist and forearm fractures while light physical activity was protective. INTRODUCTION: The aim of this population-based case control study was to examine the association between television, computer, and video viewing; types and levels of physical activity; and upper limb fractures in children 9-16 years of age. MATERIALS AND METHODS: A total of 321 fracture cases and 321 randomly selected individually matched controls were studied. Television, computer, and video viewing and types and levels of physical activity were determined by interview-administered questionnaire. Bone strength was assessed by DXA and metacarpal morphometry. RESULTS: In general, sports participation increased total upper limb fracture risk in boys and decreased risk in girls. Gender-specific risk estimates were significantly different for total, contact, noncontact, and high-risk sports participation as well as four individual sports (soccer, cricket, surfing, and swimming). In multivariate analysis, time spent television, computer, and video viewing in both sexes was positively associated with wrist and forearm fracture risk (OR 1.6/category, 95% CI: 1.1-2.2), whereas days involved in light physical activity participation decreased fracture risk (OR 0.8/category, 95% CI: 0.7-1.0). Sports participation increased hand (OR 1.5/sport, 95% CI: 1.1-2.0) and upper arm (OR 29.8/sport, 95% CI: 1.7-535) fracture risk in boys only and decreased wrist and forearm fracture risk in girls only (OR 0.5/sport, 95% CI: 0.3-0.9). Adjustment for bone density and metacarpal morphometry did not alter these associations. CONCLUSION: There is gender discordance with regard to sports participation and fracture risk in children, which may reflect different approaches to sport. Importantly, television, computer, and video viewing has a dose-dependent association with wrist and forearm fractures, whereas light physical activity is protective. The mechanism is unclear but may involve bone-independent factors, or less likely, changes in bone quality not detected by DXA or metacarpal morphometry.

Case-Control Studies↗
PubMed2002

Television images and psychological symptoms after the September 11 terrorist attacks.

Exposure to graphic television images may exacerbate psychological symptoms in disaster situations. We tested the hypotheses that (1) more frequent viewing of television images of the September 11 terrorist attacks was associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and depression, and that (2) direct exposure to disaster events had an interactive effect with media viewing. We recruited 1,008 adult residents of the borough of Manhattan in New York City through a random-digit-dial telephone survey conducted between October 16 and November 15, 2001. Respondents who repeatedly saw "people falling or jumping from the towers of the World Trade Center" had higher prevalence of PTSD (17.4%) and depression (14.7%) than those who did not (6.2% and 5.3%, respectively). Among respondents who were directly affected by the attacks (e.g., had a friend killed), those who watched this television image frequently were more likely to have PTSD and depression than those who did not. Among respondents not directly affected by the attacks, prevalence of PTSD and depression was not associated with frequency of television image viewing. Specific disaster-related television images were associated with PTSD and depression among persons who were directly exposed to a disaster. Future research should address causal directionality of this association.

Adult↗
PubMed1989

One year follow-up of the Chicago televised smoking cessation program.

We compared the relative effectiveness of four different conditions of self-help and social support provided to people attempting to quit smoking in conjunction with a televised cessation program: Smokers ready to quit were able to request written manuals from hardware stores to accompany a televised program. At worksites we provided the written manual to all workers. At a random half of the worksites, we also provided training to discussion leaders who subsequently led discussions among smokers attempting to quit with the program. At health maintenance organization sites we invited smokers who had requested program materials to participate in similar group discussions at health centers. In this paper we report one year follow-up results for the above four groups and compare them with previously reported results of a self-help manual alone. Results for the television plus manual condition were better than those of past studies (25 percent nonsmoking prevalence and 10 percent continuous cessation one year after the program) and considerably better than the manual alone. None of the other conditions designed to supplement the manual plus television produced better long-term outcomes; we explore the reasons for this. The program did encourage and help over 50,000 Chicago smokers to attempt quitting with the American Lung Association manual, 100 times as many as would have done so without the televised program. At least 15 other similar programs implemented since 1984 multiply this effect.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The portrayal of older people in television advertisements: a cross-cultural content analysis of the United States and South Korea.

A cross-cultural content analysis of 2295 prime-time television ads--859 ads from the United States and 1436 ads from South Korea-was conducted to examine the differences in the portrayal of older people between U.S. and Korean ads. In two countries, the underrepresentation of older people in ads was found in terms of proportions of the actual population. The findings also showed that older people are more likely to play major roles in Korean television ads than in U.S. ads. In terms of the attributes of older people depicted in ads, differences between U.S. and Korean ads were also found. The results showed that Korean television ads are likely to more positively depict older people than American television ads are. These findings supported the basic assumption of cross-cultural advertising, in which the differences in cultural values between the two cultures are related to the differences in the contents of their advertisements. However, the problems of underrepresentation and stereotypes in the portrayal of older people were still identified both in Korean and U.S. prime-time television ads.

Advertising↗
PubMed1990

Children's judgments of televised events: the real versus pretend distinction.

Previous research suggests that children's understanding that television is fictional may be dependent on various factors inherent in televised events. 36 children, 4- to 6-yr.-old, were asked to judge the reality of specific televised events shown via videotape. The events varied in aggressiveness, format, and type of character shown. While age and sex differences were absent, children's judgments were dependent on the format of the televised events (cartoon versus noncartoon) rather than other variables. Implications for research on children's learning of televised aggression and prosocial behaviors are discussed.

Cartoons as Topic↗
PubMed1990

The impact of television on children and clinical practice.

The impact of television on children and child development and on the practice of child psychiatry is reviewed. Evidence from research is that children learn from watching television and the programs they see can change their behaviour. Programs with violent and aggressive themes tend to make children more aggressive and disobedient. Cultural sex-role and social stereotypes depicted on the television can also influence children's perceptions of society. Programs specifically designed for different age groups of children which depict pro-social behaviour are likely to lead children to become more friendly, co-operative and self-controlled. The use of television in child psychiatric clinical work supervision and research, and its potential to reduce the psychological trauma experienced by children in the legal proceedings of child abuse cases is discussed. More research is needed to determine the content and intervening variables that effect the acquisition of both positive and negative behaviour from television and enhance its promotion of mental health.

Australia↗
PubMed1993

The impact of hearing impairment on television viewing in the UK.

Just under one in 10 of a nationally representative sample of UK television viewers said that they experienced difficulty with their hearing. These hard-of-hearing viewers were found to report much greater difficulty watching programmes (mean difficulty rating = 32%) than elderly viewers with no reported hearing difficulty (mean difficulty rating = 10%), or those viewers generally who said they had no hearing problems (mean difficulty rating = 3%). Using a similarly constructed rating for reported enjoyment of different television programmes, hard-of-hearing viewers were found to exhibit a small reduction in enjoyment across the majority of programmes types. While it might have been anticipated that a greater proportion of those with impaired hearing owned a teletext television set giving them access to subtitling, this was not found to be the case. Across the sample as a whole, teletext ownership was shown to be 45%, but was lower than this (38.5%) amongst the hard-of-hearing. The findings corroborate what has been shown in another study, namely that teletext ownership is lower among older viewers. Hearing impairment, if it is not congenital or of early childhood origin, is a condition associated with increasing age. Thus, those whose viewing and appreciation of programmes might be enhanced by subtitles, in the main, do not have access to them. Among hard-of-hearing viewers who did have access to the teletext subtitle service, two thirds of those aged 51 years and over felt that subtitles assisted their understanding of television programmes. As one might expect, of those owning teletext, hard-of-hearing viewers reported greatest use of subtitles. Thirteen per cent of those with hearing difficulty and aged over 51 years said they used subtitles for all programmes watched and a further 26% of the over fifties with hearing difficulty reported regularly using subtitles for selected programmes. These data advocate that there are many hard-of-hearing viewers whose viewing could be enhanced by subtitling. Effort should be made to promote public and professional awareness of the availability of teletext subtitling and additional resources will be needed to combat the technophobia which may hinder older people from initially purchasing a teletext television set, or making effective use of one they already own.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Exploring pathways from television viewing to academic achievement in school age children.

The author's purpose in this study was to test 4 hypotheses that proposed different paths for the influences of children's television viewing on their academic achievement. Data were drawn from the 1997 Child Development Supplement (CDS) to the Panel Study of Income Dynamics (PSID). The population for this study included 1,203 children between the ages of 6 and 13 years from the CDS-PSID data set. The author used structural equation modeling to test pathways from children's television viewing to their academic achievement. The author assumed that children's television viewing hindered their academic achievement by reducing certain traits that related to academic achievement. Results showed that 3 hypothetical models fit the data--the time-displacement hypothesis, the mental effort-passivity hypothesis, and the attention-arousal hypothesis. A 4th hypothetical model, the learning-information hypothesis, which proposed that children's television viewing practices stimulate their academic achievement, was not supported. In sum, children who watched more television tended to spend less time doing homework, studying, and reading for leisure. In addition, their behaviors became more impulsive, which resulted in an eventual decrease in their academic achievement.

Achievement↗
PubMed2006

Television viewing habits associated with obesity risk factors: a survey of Melbourne schoolchildren.

OBJECTIVES: To examine whether children's television viewing may be a useful indicator of risk of obesity-promoting versus healthy eating behaviours, low-level physical activity (PA) and overweight or obesity among children of primary school entry and exit ages. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study, stratified by area-level socioeconomic status. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: 1560 children (613 aged 5-6 years [50% boys], and 947 aged 10-12 years [46% boys]) from 24 primary schools in Melbourne, Australia, randomly selected proportionate to school size between 1 November 2002 and 30 December 2003. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Parents' reports of the time their child spends watching television, their participation in organised physical activities (PA), and their food intake; each child's measured height and weight and their PA levels as assessed by accelerometry for one week. RESULTS: After adjusting for the age and sex of child, the parents' level of education, clustering by school, and all other health behaviour variables, children who watched television for > 2 h/day were significantly more likely than children who watched television for < or = 2 h/day to: to have one or more serves/day of high energy drinks (adjusted odds ratio [AOR], 2.31; 95% CI, 1.61-3.32), and to have one or more serves/day of savoury snacks (AOR, 1.50; 95% CI, 1.04-2.17). They were also less likely to have two or more serves/day of fruit (AOR, 0.58; 95% CI, 0.46-0.74), or to participate in any organised PA (AOR, 0.52; 95% CI, 0.34-0.80). CONCLUSIONS: Health practitioners in the primary care setting may find that asking whether a child watches television for more than 2 hours daily can be a useful indicator of a child's risk of poor diet and low physical activity level.

Australia↗
PubMedDate not supplied

No excuses: televised pornography harms children.

All youngsters are at some risk from exposure to televised pornography, as described above. At particular risk for harm, however, are the most vulnerable children in our society--children in single-parent homes, children with mental and emotional disturbances, mentally challenged children, children who have been physically and/or sexually abused, and children in dysfunctional families. Youngsters for whom television serves as a babysitter or parental surrogate unfortunately are exposed to few competing influences to television viewing. In addition, parents in such homes are least likely to know what their children are viewing and to be able to pass on their own values about sex and sexual behavior. The main possible effects of televised pornography that must concern us as clinicians, educators, and parents are modeling and imitation of language heard and behaviors observed in televised pornography; negative interference with children's normal sexual development; emotional reactions such as nightmares and feelings of anxiety, guilt, confusion, and/or shame; stimulation of premature sexual activity; development of unrealistic, misleading, and/or harmful attitudes toward sex and adult male-female relationships; and undermining of family values with resultant conflict between parents and children. Much more research is clearly needed on this topic. Because of the ethical and procedural problems surrounding research on children exposed to pornography, ideal research designs may never be possible. Nonetheless, we hope that this article will stimulate further discussion and work. To devise public policy that protects children from potentially harmful material while at the same time respecting the media's First Amendment rights, such public discourse and responsible research are essential.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Effect of television viewing on pediatric obesity.

OBJECTIVE: To test the effect of television viewing on pediatric obesity in urban China. METHODS: Stratified multistage cluster random sampling method was used for subjects selection. Nine thousand three hundred and fifty-six children, as well as their parents, were investigated. Questionnaire survey was used for data collection. Children's weights and heights were measured in the clinic of the investigated kindergartens or schools by trained investigators following the standardized procedure. RESULTS: The percentages of children and adolescents who watched television less than 1 h, 1-2 h, 2-3 h and more than 3 h daily were 32.5%, 46.0%, 15.4% and 6.1%, respectively, while the prevalence of obesity was 10.9%, 11.8%, 13.2% and 15.1%, respectively. Each hourly increment of television viewing was associated with 1%-2% increase in the prevalence of obesity. CONCLUSIONS: Time spent watching television is directly related to an increase risk of obesity, television viewing time is an independent factor for pediatric obesity.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Dance and reducing television viewing to prevent weight gain in African-American girls: the Stanford GEMS pilot study.

OBJECTIVE: To test the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of after-school dance classes and a family-based intervention to reduce television viewing, thereby reducing weight gain, among African-American girls. DESIGN: Twelve-week, 2-arm parallel group, randomized controlled trial. SETTING: Low-income neighborhoods. PARTICIPANTS: Sixty-one 8-10-year-old African-American girls and their parents/guardians. INTERVENTIONS: The treatment intervention consisted of after-school dance classes at 3 community centers, and a 5-lesson intervention, delivered in participants' homes, and designed to reduce television, videotape, and video game use. The active control intervention consisted of disseminating newsletters and delivering health education lectures. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Implementation and process measures, body mass index, waist circumference, physical activity measured by accelerometry, self-reported media use, and meals eaten with TV. RESULTS: Recruitment and retention goals were exceeded. High rates of participation were achieved for assessments and intervention activities, except where transportation was lacking. All interventions received high satisfaction ratings. At follow up, girls in the treatment group, as compared to the control group, exhibited trends toward lower body mass index (adjusted difference = -.32 kg/m2, 95% confidence interval [CI] -.77, .12; Cohen's d = .38 standard deviation units) and waist circumference (adjusted difference = -.63 cm, 95% CI -1.92, .67; d = .25); increased after-school physical activity (adjusted difference = 55.1 counts/minute, 95% CI -115.6, 225.8; d = .21); and reduced television, videotape, and video game use (adjusted difference = -4.96 hours/week, 95% CI -11.41, 1.49; d = .40). The treatment group reported significantly reduced household television viewing (d = .73, P = .007) and fewer dinners eaten while watching TV (adjusted difference = -1.60 meals/week, 95% CI -2.99, -.21; d = .59; P = .03). Treatment group girls also reported less concern about weight (d = .60; P = .03), and a trend toward improved school grades (d = .51; P = .07). CONCLUSIONS: This study confirmed the feasibility, acceptability, and potential efficacy of using dance classes and a family-based intervention to reduce television viewing, thereby reducing weight gain, in African-American girls.

Black or African American↗
PubMed1992

The effects of television viewing on preoperative anxiety.

Previous studies have looked at the relationship between preoperative anxiety and postoperative course. However, few studies have looked at methods to decrease preoperative anxiety. To investigate preoperative anxiety and possible anxiety reduction strategies, the investigators devised a clinical study to examine the effects of television viewing on preoperative anxiety. The study compared patients who were not able to watch television in the preoperative setting with those who were. The investigators hypothesized that television viewing in the preoperative setting would decrease preoperative anxiety. A purposive sampling method was chosen so that the study population could be selected using certain criteria. The sample consisted of adult patients 18 to 77 years old who were admitted to the preoperative area at least 2 hours before surgery. A total of 76 subjects participated in the study. However, due to incomplete data on seven of the questionnaires, 7 of the subjects were rejected. Of the remaining 69 subjects, 39 had no television access and the remaining 30 did. Statistical comparisons of the two groups suggest that there was a significant difference in the anxiety levels of the two groups. As hoped, the hypothesis was proven correct: Those subjects who watched television in the preoperative area had significantly lower levels of anxiety than those who did not.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Television viewing and pediatric hypercholesterolemia.

Cholesterol screening for children is recommended currently only for those with a family history of premature coronary heart disease or hyperlipidemia. The authors report on a pediatric-office-based cholesterol screening program where the predictive values of family history indicators were evaluated along with reported television viewing, physical activity, and dietary habits in 1081 children (aged 2 to 20 years, mean 7.4 +/- 3.6 [SD] years). Eight percent of these children had a total cholesterol value of 200 mg/dL or higher; 53% of such children reported watching 2 or more hours of television daily compared with 34% of children with lower cholesterol levels. Multivariate analyses revealed that excessive television viewing was the strongest predictor for a child to have a cholesterol value of 200 mg/dL or higher, with relative risks of 2.2 for 2 to 4 hours of television viewing per day (P less than .01) and 4.8 for children watching more than 4 hours/day, when compared to those watching less than 2 hours/day (P less than .01). In contrast, a positive family history of a high cholesterol level was only modestly associated with an increased probability of having a high cholesterol level (relative risk = 1.6, P less than .05), and a history of premature myocardial infarction in a parent or grandparent was not associated with a child's cholesterol level. Excessive television viewing was found to be associated with certain dietary and physical activity habits and may prove to be a useful, global marker for several life-style factors predisposing children to hypercholesterolemia.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Television and violent criminal behavior: beyond the Bobo doll.

This study builds on the research concerning television viewing and aggression by extending the external validity, or generalizability, of the dependent variable. We assess the relationship between self-reported television viewing at 8, 10, and 12 years of age and the subsequent commission of a violent criminal act. This study is based on interview data from 48 males incarcerated for violent crimes and 45 nonincarcerated, nonviolent males matched on age, race, and neighborhood of residence during adolescence. Results show that the extent of a respondent's reported television viewing was not, in and of itself, predictive of violent criminal acts. Instead, it was the interaction of heavy doses of television viewing and exposure to either maternal or paternal abuse that related to violent crime. These findings support the efforts of some recent scholars in their attempts to understand why television has a negative effect on only some viewers. The results are discussed in light of the cognitive formulations of neoassociationism, encoding specificity, and the double-dose effect.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1983

Children's television viewing: attention and comprehension of auditory versus visual information.

This study examines the relationship between children's attention and comprehension of auditory and visual information on television. 60 5-year-olds viewed a videotape of "Sesame Street" and were then asked comprehension questions. Equal numbers of children viewed the television with (a) toys available to play with (the visual attention manipulation); (b) a record playing in the room (the auditory attention manipulation); or (c) no toys or record available (the control condition). All children viewed the same television sequence, which consisted of (a) visual segments, (b) auditory segments, and (c) mixed modality segments. The major results were that the children effectively distributed their attention such that they could process auditory and visual information from television while performing other activities. Further, the children were sensitive to which segments required visual attention and which did not, and they were able to spontaneously adjust their pattern of visual attention appropriately. These results indicate that children utilize a fairly sophisticated cognitive processing strategy while watching television.

Attention↗
PubMed1984

Television and children: a review.

Television plays an important role in the lives of children, and for some a larger role than that of parents and schools. There are many educational, social, and recreational benefits gained from viewing television for persons of all ages. Detrimental effects, however, are also possible, especially if the viewer lacks the knowledge or emotional maturity to place a program in its proper perspective. Debate has centered on whose responsibility it is to provide children with this understanding and perspective, so that television's benefits outweigh its detriments. This article reviews current research on the amount of television viewing by children, their reasons for doing so, and their understanding of what they see on television. The relationship is discussed between this understanding and the positive and negative effects of certain types of programs and advertisements. Suggestions for educational interventions by parents and teachers are provided.

Adolescent↗