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PubMed1984

Two unusual budding bacteria isolated from a swimming pool.

Two unusual strains of budding bacteria were isolated on a Millipore Pseudomonas Count Water Tester during routine monitoring of Pseudomonas aeruginosa counts in a swimming pool. The first isolate has been identified as Blastobacter sp. It was a yellow-pigmented, Gram negative rod-shaped organism with a polar holdfast by which it attached to solid surfaces or other cells to form rosettes. The cells reproduced by asymmetric division or budding at the free pole of the cell, producing motile daughter cells with a single polar flagellum. The second isolate, which has not yet been identified, was a red-pigmented, Gram negative rod-shaped organism which produced one or more buds at each pole of the cell. Cell division appears to occur by both binary fission and by budding. Both organisms were strict aerobes, catalase and oxidase positive and did not produce acid from glucose in Hugh and Leifson medium.

Gram-Negative Aerobic Bacteria↗
PubMed1996

An adjustable-current swimming pool for the evaluation of endurance capacity of mice.

A new forced-swimming apparatus for determining maximum swimming time in mice was devised for use in the evaluation of the endurance capacity of Std and ddY and CDF1 mice after various diet and drug treatments. With the apparatus, a water current is generated by circulating water with a pump in a swimming pool. A spout and suction slit were contrived to generate a constant current while the strength of the current is regulated by a valve. The decrease in the leg-kicking intervals of mice accompanying the increase in the current speed confirmed that the workload is adjustable by regulation of the current speed. Compared with the number of forelimb strokes, that of the hindlimb kicks was greater. The swimming time until fatigue was observed to decrease with increasing current speed in the two strains of mice. As biochemical indexes, the blood lactate and muscle glycogen levels corroborated the correlation between current speed and increase in workload. These results indicate that the apparatus employed in the present study is suitable for the evaluation of the endurance capacity of mice and that is useful for detecting the effects of dietary differences and drug pretreatments on this capacity.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

The attitude-practice gap revisited: risk reduction beliefs and behaviors among owners of residential swimming pools.

Complete pool fencing and effective bystander resuscitation are both believed to reduce the risk of childhood drowning. The relationship between support for, and prevalence of, a complete pool barrier and current cardiopulmonary resuscitation certification was investigated among an equal probability sample of 795 owners of residential swimming pools in Sacramento County, California. Only 50% (95% confidence interval [CI] 44%, 56%) of respondents who favored a cardiopulmonary resuscitation certification requirement for pool owners represented a household with any members so certified. Only 35% (95% CI 26%, 44%) of respondents who endorsed a complete barrier requirement for all pools had a fence surrounding their own pool. Support for a cardiopulmonary resuscitation requirement was associated with a modestly higher prevalence of current cardiopulmonary resuscitation certification (46% vs 33%, difference = 13%, 95% CI for difference 2%, 24%). Endorsement of a pool barrier requirement was associated with a substantially higher prevalence of complete pool fencing (35% vs 7%, difference = 28%, 95% CI for difference 19%, 37%). The proportion of the pool-owning population endorsing these risk reduction behaviors is much larger than the proportion actually adopting them. The results suggest that an effective pool drowning-prevention program will rely primarily on legislative approaches, with health education serving as a useful adjunct.

Attitude↗
PubMed1986

Erosion of dental enamel among competitive swimmers at a gas-chlorinated swimming pool.

In September 1982, two Charlottesville, Virginia, residents were found by their dentists to have general erosion of dental enamel consistent with exposure to acid. Both patients were competitive swimmers at the same private club pool. No other common exposure could be determined. An epidemiologic survey was made of 747 club members. Symptoms compatible with dental enamel erosion were reported by 3% of nonswimmers (9/295), 12% of swimmers who were not members of the swim team (46/393), and 39% of swim team members (23/59). All four swimmers with clinically verified dental enamel erosion had trained regularly in the pool for competitive swimming meets, compared with one of eight matched swimmers without enamel erosion. Examination of the implicated swimming pool revealed a gas-chlorinated pool with corrosion of metal fixtures and etching of cement exposed to the pool water. A pool water sample had a pH of 2.7, i.e., an acid concentration approximately 100,000 times that recommended for swimming pools (pH 7.2-8.0). A review of pool management practices revealed inadequate monitoring of pool water pH. Acid erosion of dental enamel--"swimmer's erosion"--is a painful, costly, irreversible condition which can be caused by inadequately maintained gas-chlorinated swimming pools.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Comparative study of membrane filtration and enrichment media for the isolation and enumeration of Pseudomonas aeruginosa from sewage, surface water, and swimming pools.

The recovery of Pseudomonas aeruginosa on several selective culture media was tested using raw sewage and secondary sewage effluent samples as well as spiked chlorinated imitation swimming water and samples from whirlpools. mPA-medium B gave good recovery of both vital and chlorine-injured P. aeruginosa and selectivity was greater than 90% when analysing whirlpool samples. It is therefore the medium recommended for examination of chlorinated swimming pools. When analysing sewage polluted water with the mPA-B medium, reduced selectivity was noted from low verification rates and from overgrowth by competitive flora. A modified medium (mPA-D; addition of cetrimide, omission of sulphapyridine and actidione) was more selective and sufficiently recovered noninjured cells. Chlorine-injured cells were completely inhibited, however. C-390 (9-chloro-9-(4-diethylaminophenyl)-10-phenylacridan) was confirmed to be highly selective for P. aeruginosa when used in spread plates at a concentration of 30 micrograms/mL; P. aeruginosa was slightly inhibited. However, the medium could not be used with conventional membrane filtration techniques, because cellulose ester filters interfered with the selective action of C-390. Selectivity could be improved by using Gelman Tuffryn (polysulphone) filters and increasing the C-390 concentration to 120 micrograms/mL. At this concentration, however, the medium was strongly inhibitory to P. aeruginosa; resuscitation only partially improved recovery. Two other membrane filtration media were tested. Both cetrimide - nalidixic acid agar and Drake's medium No. 19 were inhibitory to chlorine-injured cells. Several types of membrane filters were tested and there was little difference between them.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Cetrimonium Compounds↗
PubMed1997

Outbreak of cryptosporidiosis associated with a swimming pool in Andover.

An outbreak of eight cases of cryptosporidiosis in Hampshire over a period of eight weeks in the summer of 1996 was linked to use of one swimming pool. Cryptosporidial oocysts were not isolated from samples of backwash, but the presence of enterobius ova indicated faecal contamination and a case control study including the first four primary cases suggested an association with immersion in the pool. Even in small outbreaks case control studies can provide useful supportive evidence as to the possible source of infection.

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Explosion risk from swimming pool chlorinators and review of chlorine toxicity.

Two patients were admitted to the hospital emergency room in respiratory distress after an accidental explosion involving chlorinating agents for the swimming pool. The two primary agents involved were calcium hypochlorite and trichloro-s-triazinetrione; both are commonly used chlorinating agents. These chemicals were tested in a bomb apparatus measuring temperature and gas production. Combining the two chlorinators at 2, 6, 12, or 18 g of each produced a progressive increase in gas production from 234 to 1422 mL. The temperature increased from 30 degrees C at 2 g to 63 degrees C at 18 g. The time to complete the reaction decreased from 6.2 minutes at 2 g to 3.8 minutes at 18 g. The third run at the 18 g level resulted in an explosion. The results indicate that gas generation is dependent on both products. The addition of organic material was abandoned because of the explosive nature of the reaction. The amount of calcium hypochlorite primarily determines the rate of reaction and heat generation. Appropriate emergency action and treatment for chlorine gas is discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1975

[Randomised investigations of some Tyrolean swimming pools for the presence of Trichomonas vaginalis and pathogenic fungi (author's transl)].

Trichomonads were not demonstrated either microscopically or by culture in water samples from 15 public open air swimming pools in the Tyrol. On the other hand, a small number of pathogenic fungi (Candida albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Tr. verrucosum) were cultured from pool water with a free chlorine content of less than 0.35 mg/l (DPD 1). Dermatophytes could also be demonstrated by cultures of the coatings on the surfaces of tiles in the showers, and of pool surrounding-and cabin tract floors. (Candida albicans, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Epidermophyton floccosum, Scopulariopsis brevicaulis).

Animals↗
PubMed1984

[Drowning, swimming pool death and other emergencies related to swimming].

In the Federal Republic of Germany, some 700 people drown every year. Of particular importance is the so-called swimming bath black-out that occurs while swimming under water, which must always be avoidable when the causes are known and appropriate precautionary measures taken. Of life-saving importance in a case of drowning is the rapid and proper use of first aid. The severe pulmonary injury induced by freshwater or salt water aspiration urgently requires the treatment of the victim in an intensive care unit of a hospital, even after successful resuscitation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Short term respiratory effects of acute exposure to chlorine due to a swimming pool accident.

OBJECTIVE: Acute exposure to chlorine causes lung damage, and recovery may proceed slowly for several weeks. The short term respiratory effects of acute chlorine inhalation during a swimming pool accident were examined. METHODS: A total of 282 subjects (134 children, aged <14 years) inhaled hydrogen chloride and sodium hypochlorite during an accident caused by a malfunction of the water chlorinating system in a community pool in Rome in 1998. Most people received bronchodilators and cortisone at the emergency room; five children were admitted to hospital. A total of 260 subjects (92.2%) were interviewed about duration of exposure (<3, 3--5, >5 minutes), intensity of exposure (not at all or a little, a moderate amount, a lot), and respiratory symptoms. Lung function was measured in 184 people (82 children) after 15--30 days. The effects of exposure to chlorine were analysed through multiple linear regression, separately in adults and in children. RESULTS: Acute respiratory symptoms occurred among 66.7% of adults and 71.6% of children. The incidences were highest among those who had chronic respiratory disease and had a longer duration of exposure. In about 30% of the subjects, respiratory symptoms persisted for 15--30 days after the accident. Lung function levels were lower in those who reported a high intensity of exposure than in those who reported low exposure, both in children and in adults (mean (95% confidence interval (95% CI)) differences in forced expiratory volume in 1 second (FEV(1,)) were -109 (-310 to 93) ml, and -275 (-510 to -40) ml, respectively). CONCLUSION: Persistent symptoms and lung function impairment were found up to 1 month after the incident. Although community pool accidents happen rarely, the medical community needs to be alerted to the possible clinical and physiological sequelae, especially among susceptible people.

Accidents↗
PubMed2004

[Is Dutch swimming pool water erosive?].

Etiological factors in the development of dental erosion are usually listed as dietary acids, for instance in soft drinks and fruit juices, and intrinsic acid exposure due to gastro-intestinal disease or frequent vomiting. Quite often the list of causes in reviews and textbooks also includes frequent swimming. This paper evaluates the evidence behind this erosion etiology. The main disinfection techniques using gas chlorination and sodium hypochlorite are described, and their relative risk for development of low pH water is discussed. In the Netherlands only the relatively safe sodium hypochlorite method is used, and the quality of the water in public swimming pools is monitored monthly by independent test laboratories. Data for 2001 from such a test laboratory show that the percentage of low-pH results is very low (0.14%). It is concluded that the risk of dental erosion from frequent swimming in acidic pool water is probably negligible in the Netherlands.

Humans↗
PubMed2004

Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in swimming pool filter backwash water concentrates by flocculation and immunomagnetic separation.

The purpose of the present study was to evaluate techniques for detection of Giardia cysts and Cryptosporidium oocysts in swimming pool filter backwash water. Calcium carbonate flocculation was used for water samples concentration of 1 l filter backwash water samples. Immunomagnetic separation (IMS) was used for separation of cysts and oocysts from detrital material. Cysts and oocysts were then detected using direct immunofluorescence. ColorSeed C&G was used as an internal standard. Recoveries were examined at several processing points. Highest recoveries (23% Cryptosporidium, 18% Giardia) were obtained using lower filter backwash volumes, greater IMS volumes, and addition of Tween20 to backwash samples prior to processing. The combination of CaCO3 flocculation, IMS and direct immunofluorescence was found to be an effective tool for the detection and quantification of Giardia spp. and Cryptosporidium spp. in filter backwash water samples.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

[Enterobacteria as quality criteria in unprocessed, drinking and swimming pool water. Comparative study of the occurrence of enterobacteria, Escherichia coli, coliforms, colony count, fecal streptococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa].

Between 1985 and 1986 2064 samples of raw-, drinking- and swimming-pool-waters from Southwest-Germany have been examined according to German Drinking-Water Standards as well as for the occurrence of Enterobacteria, fecal streptococci and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. With the exception of Pseudomonas aeruginosa all parameters showed a statistically verified dependence on each others occurrence, which was most significant between the two criteria "Escherichia coli" and "fecal streptococci". The results of the investigation increased the doubts concerning the value of "coliforms" as a quality criterion. Enterobacteria seem to be a suitable quality criterion for waters which have received a disinfecting treatment.

Colony Count, Microbial↗
PubMed1994

Cryptosporidiosis associated with a swimming pool complex.

Twelve children and one adult in Gloucestershire fell ill with cryptosporidiosis in March 1992. Ten cases lived in or near a particular Cotswold town. Eight of these had visited a swimming pool within 24 hours of a suspected faecal accident, and two may have been secondary cases. Of the three cases who lived elsewhere, one was probably unrelated to the outbreak, one had visited the pool, and one was a contact of a boy who may have been the source of the outbreak.

Adult↗
PubMed1966

Comparison of chlorine, bromine, iodine as disinfectants for swimming pool water.

Studies on the germicidal activity of chlorine, bromine, and iodine were made by use of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists official first action method for determining effectiveness of swimming pool water disinfectants. In this procedure, 0.3 ppm of available chlorine as chlorine gas has activity equivalent to 0.6 ppm of available chlorine in the buffered sodium hypochlorite control when Escherichia coli is used as the test organism. With Streptococcus faecalis as the test organism, 0.45 ppm of available chlorine as gaseous chlorine gives activity equivalent to the control. Liquid bromine at 1.0 ppm is as effective as the 0.6 ppm of available chlorine hypochlorite control with E. coli as the test organism, but 2.0 ppm of liquid bromine is necessary to provide activity equivalent to the 0.6 ppm of available chlorine control when S. faecalis is employed. With iodine as metallic iodine, 2.0 ppm is necessary to provide a result equivalent to the 0.6 ppm of available chlorine control with both E. coli and S. faecalis. In the various systems tested, gaseous chlorine was the most active form of available chlorine; liquid bromine provided the most active form of bromine, and metallic iodine provided the most active form of iodine.

Bromine↗