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PubMed2004

Effect of magnetic attachment with stress breaker on lateral stress to abutment tooth under overdenture.

Recently, a newly developed magnetic attachment with stress breaker was used in retentive components in overdentures. Excessive lateral stress has a more harmful effect on natural teeth than axial stress, and the magnetic attachment with stress breaker is expected to reduce lateral forces on abutment teeth and protect it teeth from excessive stress. However, the properties of this retainer have not yet been determined experimentally. This study compares the lateral forces on abutment teeth for three retainers under loading on the denture base in a model study. A mandibular simulation model is constructed to measure lateral stress. Three types of retentive devices are attached to the canine root. These devices include the conventional root coping, the conventional magnetic attachment and the new magnetic attachment with stress breaker. For each retentive device, load is generated on the occlusal table of the model overdenture, and the lateral stress on the canine root and the displacement of the overdenture measured. The magnetic attachment with stress breaker does not displace the denture and exhibits lower lateral stress in the canine root than conventional root coping and magnetic attachments.

Acrylic Resins↗
PubMed2026

Genome-wide mapping of stress-responsive lncRNA, uc.104, reveals the chromatin-mediated regulation of stress and plasticity-related genes in the hippocampus of chronic restraint rats.

Chronic stress significantly impacts hippocampal function through transcriptional and epigenetic mechanisms. While the roles of lncRNAs in stress-related transcriptional and epigenetic regulation have recently been recognized, their genome-wide functions controlling the transcriptional network remain largely unclear. Evidence indicates that the lncRNA uc.104 is involved in stress responses; however, its genome-wide chromatin interactions and gene regulatory effects are yet to be explored. To examine this, we combined chromatin isolation by RNA purification sequencing (ChIRP-seq) and RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) in the hippocampus from handled control and chronic restraint stress (CRS) rats. ChIRP-seq identified 6,664 uc.104 binding peaks under CRS, including 6,517 enriched and 149 reduced. Many peaks were mapped to intronic and promoter-proximal regions of protein-coding genes. Integration of ChIRP-seq with RNA-seq data revealed 1,839 differentially expressed genes associated with uc.104 binding sites, with 106 high-confidence overlaps. Several genes (Gabra3, Htr7, Irs1, Gpr37, Clu, Hspa1b, Ppp3r2, Nfasc, Pcdhac2, and Cysltr2) identified as regulatory targets of uc.104, have been directly implicated in stress responses, synaptic plasticity, and neuroinflammation. Gene ontology and Synapse GO (SynGO) analyses revealed significant enrichment for processes involving dendritic spine formation, synapse organization, and pre- and postsynaptic signaling. Protein-protein interaction analysis identified hub genes, including EGFR, CDC42, IGF1R, CTNNB1, CALM1, CALM3, POLR2A, MDM2, TBP, and CSNK1E, several of which have been linked to stress-responsive pathways. Together, our findings reveal that uc.104 binding to chromatin near stress- and synapse-related genes may act as a regulator of stress-responsive transcriptional networks in the hippocampus. By linking uc.104 occupancy to stress and synaptic responsive genes, this study highlights uc.104 as a potential mediator of stress-induced hippocampal malfunctions.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

The response of skin disease to stress: changes in the severity of acne vulgaris as affected by examination stress.

BACKGROUND: Although emotional stress has long been suspected to exacerbate acne vulgaris, previous reports addressing its influence on acne severity have been mainly anecdotal. OBJECTIVES: To elucidate the possible relationship between stress and acne exacerbation by evaluating changes in acne severity during nonexamination and examination periods and to assess the possible relationship of these changes in severity with perceived examination stress by using previously validated scales measuring acne severity and perceived stress. DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. SETTING: General university community. PARTICIPANTS: A volunteer sample of 22 university students (15 women and 7 men) with a minimum acne vulgaris severity of 0.5 on the photonumeric Leeds acne scale (baseline scores, 0.50-1.75). MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Participants were graded on their acne severity using the Leeds acne scale, and had their subjective stress levels assessed with the Perceived Stress Scale questionnaire during both nonexamination and examination periods. RESULTS: Subjects had a higher mean grade of acne severity and mean perceived stress score (P<.01 for both) during examinations. Using regression analysis and adjusting for the effects of confounding variables, such as changes in sleep hours, sleep quality, diet quality, and number of meals per day, increased acne severity was significantly associated with increased stress levels (r = 0.61, P<.01), while self-assessed change in diet quality was the only other significant association (P =.02). CONCLUSIONS: Patients with acne may experience worsening of the disease during examinations. Furthermore, changes in acne severity correlate highly with increasing stress, suggesting that emotional stress from external sources may have a significant influence on acne.

Acne Vulgaris↗
PubMed2000

Interventions for preventing and treating stress fractures and stress reactions of bone of the lower limbs in young adults.

BACKGROUND: Stress reaction in bone, which may proceed to a fracture, is a significant problem in military recruits and in athletes, particularly long distance runners. OBJECTIVES: To evaluate the evidence from controlled trials of treatments and programmes for prevention or management of lower limb stress fractures and stress reactions of bone in active young adults. SEARCH STRATEGY: We searched the Cochrane Musculoskeletal Injuries Group Trials Register, The Cochrane Library, MEDLINE, EMBASE, Current Contents, Dissertation Abstracts, Index to UK Theses and the bibliographies of identified articles. Date of last search: December 1997 SELECTION CRITERIA: Any randomised or quasi-randomised trial evaluating a programme or treatment to prevent or treat lower limb stress reactions of bone or stress fractures in active young adults. DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS: Searching, a decision on inclusion or exclusion, methodological assessment, and data extraction were carried out according to a predetermined protocol included in the body of the review. Analysis using Review Manager software allowed pooling of data and calculation of Peto odds ratios and absolute risk reductions, each with 95% confidence intervals. MAIN RESULTS: The use of "shock absorbing" insoles, evaluated in four trials, appears to reduce the incidence of stress fractures and stress reactions of bone (Peto odds ratio 0.47, 95% confidence interval 0. 30 to 0.76). Incomplete data from one trial indicated that reduction of running and jumping intensity may also be effective. The use of pneumatic braces in the rehabilitation of tibial stress fractures significantly reduces the time to recommencing training (weighted mean difference -42.6 days, 95% confidence interval -55.8 to -29.4 days). REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS: The use of shock absorbing insoles in footwear reduces the incidence of stress fractures in athletes and military personnel. Rehabilitation after tibial stress fracture is aided by the use of pneumatic bracing.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Stress ulceration and gastric mucosal cell kinetics: the influence of prophylaxis against acute stress ulceration.

Acute gastric stress ulceration occurs frequently in severely ill patients. Mucosal ischemia is central to the etiology of stress ulceration. The ability of the mucosa to restore continuity when damaged is one of the most important of the local defence mechanisms against injury. The aims of this study were to investigate this restitutive process during stress ulcer formation and to determine the effect of prophylaxis against stress ulceration on gastric mucosal cell kinetics. Nuclear DNA was radiolabeled in vivo with tritiated thymidine, and after autoradiography the position and number of labeled cells along the gastric mucosal gland were determined. Wistar rats were studied immediately and 48 hr after cold restraint stress. The labeling index in the proliferative zone of the gastric mucosa was significantly suppressed immediately after stress (12.58% vs 16.81% for unstressed controls, P < 0.001). This effect persisted for 48 hr after stress (9.89% vs 16.35% for unstressed controls, P < 0.001). Prophylaxis against stress ulceration with cimetidine or allopurinol prevented this suppression of gastric mucosal cell kinetics and promoted early migration of labeled cells towards the surface of the mucosal gland. Allopurinol prophylaxis was associated with migration of mucosal cells immediately following stress greater than that following cimetidine prophylaxis (14.0% vs 9.3% surface layer labeling index, P < 0.01). Allopurinol, a xanthine oxidase inhibitor, reduces oxygen free radical production during ischemia reperfusion injury. These results emphasise the importance of the gastric mucosal defence mechanisms in protection against injury and indicate the role of ischemia in the aetiology of acute gastric stress ulceration.

Allopurinol↗
PubMed1980

An educational format for teaching stress management to groups with a wide range of stress symptoms.

In view of the pervasiveness of stress reactions in contemporary society, together with the limited availability of effective coping techniques, the authors attempted to develop a stress management program that combined education on the nature of stress disorders with instruction on several practical procedures useful in coping with stress. Our study used a general population drawn from a small rural university community. There were 38 subjects, 17 male and 21 female, in the final statistical analyses. One independent variable was a lecture-discussion format to present cognitive and relaxation skills. A second independent variable was biofeedback training to decrease frontal EMG activity. The subjects were divided into five treatment groups that consisted of one or some combination of these two treatment conditions. Dependent variables were the two scales--A-State and A-Trait--of Spielberger's STAI (Spielberger, Gorsuch, & Lushene, 1970) and an adaptive application of Kerle and Bialek's (1958) Subjective Stress Scale (SSS). The SSS served as an instrument to keep subjects aware of their physical and psychological responses to stress as well as providing a pre/post measure of reactions to stress as they experienced it. Results indicated that the lecture-discussion format was effective in reducing the subjects' level of stress as measured by the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory and the Subjective Stress Scale. There was no evidence that frontal EMG feedback relaxation training contributed to the reduction of stress.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Prenatal maternal stress: differential effects upon male and female offspring responses to restraint stress as adults.

Pregnant primiparous rats were subjected to four days of light restraint stress on postconception days 7 through 10, inclusive, coincident with the development of the fetal gastrointestinal system. Twenty male and twenty female offspring from prenatally stressed and nonstressed rats were then subjected to two hours of supine cold-restraint as adults. Eighty percent of nonprenatally stressed offspring developed gastric lesions, while 47.5% of offspring of prenatally stressed mothers displayed lesions. A significant sex-stress interaction was detected, indicating that male offspring from prenatally stressed mothers display less severe gastric lesions in response to restraint stress as adults than do male offspring from nonprenatally stressed mothers. Female offspring from both prenatal stress conditions showed similar levels of stress-induced lesions.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Stress-induced craving and stress response in cocaine dependent individuals.

Two laboratory studies were conducted to examine the effects of acute psychological stress on craving and stress reactivity in cocaine abusers. In the first preliminary study, we examined the effects of a speech stressor task and a personalized stress imagery task on self-reported craving and emotional state in ten cocaine abusers. Both stressors led to significant decreases in neutral and joy states, and significant increases in fear ratings as compared to baseline ratings. In addition, the stress imagery condition led to significant increases in cocaine craving and sadness and anger ratings, as compared to baseline. Thus, the personalized stress imagery task appeared to be more effective than the speech stress task in inducing craving in the laboratory. The second study examined the effects of stress imagery as compared to neutral imagery on cocaine craving, subjective anxiety and physiological responses in a second group of ten cocaine abusers. The stress imagery task once again produced significant increases in cocaine craving along with increases in heart rate, salivary cortisol and subjective anxiety ratings. These data are the first to document that acute psychological stress consistently increases craving for cocaine in cocaine abusers. The studies also provide a promising method for examining the association between stress and drug craving in the laboratory.

Adult↗
PubMed1993

Intracerebroventricular administration of corticotropin-releasing factor induces c-fos mRNA expression in brain regions related to stress responses: comparison with pattern of c-fos mRNA induction after stress.

Centrally administered corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) produces a number of physiological and behavioral changes akin to those elicited by exposure to acute stress. However, the specific brain site of action responsible for the centrally activating property of CRF has not been precisely determined. In this study, we used in situ hybridization histochemistry for c-fos mRNA to map potential neuronal structures activated after intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of CRF and compared the distribution of c-fos mRNA with that after stress. Wistar male rats were sacrificed 30, 60, 120 and 180 min after the i.c.v. injection of 1 microgram ovine CRF or vehicle alone. Another group of rats was exposed to immobilization stress for 60 min or electrical foot-shock stress (1.5 mA, 1-s duration, 30 x) for 15 min and sacrificed before and 30, 60, 120 and 180 min after the beginning of stress. Centrally administered CRF rapidly (30-60 min) induced c-fos mRNA expression in most of the areas that showed hybridization signals for c-fos after stress: the limbic structures, including the piriform cortex, cingulate cortex, the lateral septal nucleus, the hippocampus, the anterior corticomedial and the medial amygdaloid nuclei, the hypothalamic nuclei, such as the paraventricular nucleus, the supraoptic nucleus (SO) and the dorsomedial nucleus (DMD), and some brainstem nuclei like the pontine nucleus, the locus ceruleus (LC) and Barrington's nucleus. The granular layer of the cerebellum, some thalamic nuclei and the habenula also showed hybridization signals after i.c.v. injection of CRF and stress. However, c-fos induction in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and the nucleus tractus solitarius (SOL) was seen only after i.c.v. administration of CRF; in the septo-hypothalamic nucleus and the superior olive, however, c-fos mRNA expression was observed only after stress. There were no differences in the pattern of c-fos mRNA expression between the two stress paradigms. In contrast, i.c.v. injection of saline-induced expression of c-fos mRNA in the piriform cortex, neocortex, cingulate cortex and the amygdala was much less than that seen after i.c.v.-administered CRF as evident in the intensity of the signals. These results suggest that CRF produces c-fos mRNA expression in the brain areas related to stress response, and that CRF may induce behavioral and neuroendocrine responses through activating these brain structures, such as the limbic system and the hypothalamic nuclei.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1989

Stress-rest cyclicity in the pathogenesis of restraint-induced stress gastric ulcers in rats.

Temporal patterns of stress and rest have been shown to influence extent of shock-induced pathology. In the present study, the influence of stress-rest cycles was studied on amount of gastric ulceration after two forms of immobilization stress in rats. In Experiment 1, rats were subjected to different patterns of cold supine restraint interspersed with rest periods. A single 180 minute exposure produced more extensive ulceration than did a series of six 30 minute stress periods interspersed with 30 minute rest periods in the home cage. Different results were found in Experiment 2 using the stress of restraint in water and stress/rest patterns parallel to those used in Experiment 1. Previous reports have suggested that a "priming" stress might activate mechanisms protective against gastric ulceration. This was also investigated in Experiment 2 when animals were subjected to either a single 150 minute stress period, a 30 minute priming exposure to the same stressor 150 minutes prior to a 150 minute second exposure, or a 30 minute priming exposure 30 minutes prior to a 150 minute second exposure. No evidence was found for protective effects. In fact, a priming stress 30 minutes prior to final exposure enhanced ulceration. The studies provide some supporting evidence for the role of cycles in determining extent of stress pathology. Such data must be accounted for in any description of the mechanisms of stress-related ulceration.

Animals↗
PubMed1992

Platelet hypoaggregability in rats exposed to SART stress (repeated cold stress).

A prolongation of bleeding time accompanied by thrombocytopenia and abnormalities in coagulation-fibrinolysis systems has been observed in laboratory animals exposed to a chronic form of environmental stress induced by severe fluctuations of air temperature, known as SART (specific alternation of rhythm in temperature) stress. In order to clarify the hemostatic profile under SART stress in more detail, the present study examined platelet aggregability in vitro as well as in vivo in stressed rats. During exposure to stress, thrombocytopenia developed from day 5, and remained up to at least day 14. In vitro aggregation of platelets stimulated by ADP or collagen was markedly decreased in stressed rats, compared with unstressed rats. Furthermore, stressed rats exhibited in vivo hypoaggregability of platelets, as estimated by the magnitude of the drop in circulating platelet counts following intravenous injection of ADP and collagen. Protein and cholesterol content in platelets remained constant after stress exposure. These results indicate that SART-stressed rats exhibit platelet dysfunctions in addition to thrombocytopenia. Considering the previous findings, the hemostatic system under SART stress appears to show a general tendency toward hemorrhage.

Adenosine Diphosphate↗
PubMed1993

Characterization of platelet hypofunctions in rats under SART stress (repeated cold stress).

Platelet hypoaggregability has been reported in rats exposed to a chronic form of environmental stress induced by long-lasting fluctuation in air temperature, known as SART (specific alternation of rhythm in temperature) stress. This study examines functional characteristics of platelets from stressed rats in more detail. Exposure to stress reduced aggregation and ATP release in platelets stimulated with collagen, as determined using platelet-rich plasma (PRP). The resting levels of ATP but not ADP in platelets from stressed rats were lower than those from unstressed ones. Collagen-induced release and resting level of serotonin also decreased in platelets from stressed rats. In contrast, stress failed to cause hypoaggregability of washed platelets. Circulating platelet aggregates were detected in stressed rats. From these data, SART stress appears to cause intravascular activation of platelets in spite of in vitro hypofunctions. Alteration in plasma milieu may be associated with stress-induced platelet hypofunctions in PRP.

Adenosine Diphosphate↗
PubMed2004

Daily stress and glycaemic control in Type 1 diabetes: individual differences in magnitude, direction, and timing of stress-reactivity.

The aim of this study was to investigate the relationships between daily stress and glycaemic control in 54 people with Type 1 diabetes over 21 days. Measures included daily reports of stress (hassles), four-times-daily blood glucose measurements, and HbA1c levels. Time-series analyses revealed considerable variation between individuals in the nature and extent of blood glucose response to stress (stress-reactivity). In approximately one-third of the sample, stress was significantly associated with either same- or next-day blood glucose levels (r-range: -0.79 to 0.58). The majority of stress-reactive individuals (20.4% of the sample) demonstrated a positive association between hassles and same-day blood glucose levels. A much less common effect was found in two individuals (3.7%), where hassles were related to decreased same-day blood glucose. 'Stress-reactive' individuals tended to have high HbA1c values at baseline (t(52) = 2.2; P < 0.05), and significant relationships between emotion-focused coping and blood glucose levels (r = 0.93; P < 0.01). In conclusion, although a significant majority of this sample was resistant to the effects of stress, marked individual differences were found in the nature and extent of stress-reactivity. Our study goes beyond other published results as it is longitudinal, uses time-series analyses and includes a relatively larger sample. Clinicians need to be aware of these individual differences in order to advise patients about anticipating and preventing stress-related disruptions of glycaemic control.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2005

Prenatal stress elicits regionally selective changes in basal FGF-2 gene expression in adulthood and alters the adult response to acute or chronic stress.

Exposure to stress during pregnancy influences the trajectory of brain development resulting in permanent alterations that may contribute to increased susceptibility to subsequent cognitive or neuropsychiatric disorders. In this manuscript, we examined the effects of prenatal stress on the expression of basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF-2), an important molecular regulator of development and plasticity, in adult male rats under basal conditions as well as in response to acute or chronic stress. Baseline FGF-2 mRNA levels were differentially influenced by gestational stress in a variety of brain regions, with significant decreases in prefrontal cortex and increases in entorhinal cortex and striatum. By itself, postnatal stress similarly decreased trophic factor expression in prefrontal cortex while evoking stimulation elsewhere. Gestational stress altered the pattern of FGF-2 expression in response to adult stress, completely reversing the pattern in the prefrontal cortex (stimulatory instead of inhibitory), blunting the response in the entorhinal cortex and desensitizing the response in the striatum. These effects point to a unique interference of chronic prenatal stress with both ongoing FGF-2 expression and its responses to subsequent stressors, lasting into adulthood. Given the multifaceted role of FGF-2 in synaptic development, maintenance and plasticity, these data provide detailed mechanistic evidence as to how prenatal stress elicits lifelong effects on synaptic function. The abnormal modulation of FGF-2 gene expression in specific brain regions in response to subsequent stress in adulthood may impair the normal adaptive responses of the cell to challenging situations.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2002

Inter-individual variations in wall shear stress and mechanical stress distributions at the carotid artery bifurcation of healthy humans.

Fluid shear stress and mechanical wall stress may play a role in the formation of early atherosclerotic lesions, but these quantities are difficult to measure in vivo. Our objective was to quantify these parameters in normal subjects in a clinical setting, and to define regions of low wall shear stress and high mechanical stress. The right carotid bifurcations of five healthy male volunteers were investigated using a novel non-invasive technique which integrates magnetic resonance angiography, ultrasonography, tonometry and state-of-the-art computational fluid dynamics and solid mechanics models. Significant inter-subject variations in patterns as well as magnitude of wall shear stress and mechanical stress were found. In spite of individual variabilities, this study revealed that some regions of the artery wall are exposed simultaneously to low wall shear stress and high mechanical stress and that these regions correspond to areas where atherosclerotic plaque develops. The coexistence of regions of low wall shear stress and high tensile stress may be an important determinant of the formation of atheroma in human arteries.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Behavioral analysis of stress controllability effects in a new swim stress paradigm.

Previous animal stress studies have illustrated the marked impact of coping on subsequent behavior and physiology by using shock as the stressor. The current study evaluates the generality of shock stress controllability effects in a new swim stress paradigm on several dependent measures: behavioral despair, analgesia, shuttlebox escape, and alcohol reactivity. In this new paradigm, rats in the escape group are able to learn the behavioral response as evidenced by significant reduction in the acquisition of a lever press response. Both escape and yoked subjects showed "behavioral despair" in comparison to both restrained and home cage controls when tested 24 h later. In the standard shuttlebox escape task 24-h post-stress, no group differences emerged, although a trend for poorer performance in the yoked subjects was evident. No group differences were observed in pain sensitivity after the first or second forced swim exposure. Finally, stress controllability effects were observed in behavioral reactivity to alcohol 2-h post-stress as measured by rotarod performance. This effect is opposite to the previous observations with the tailshock stress controllability paradigm. These results suggest that (1) there are certain similarities, but some fundamental differences between the behavioral endpoints measured following intermittent swim stress in comparison to the well-established effects of the intermittent tailshock stress model and (2) the qualitative nature of a stressor may markedly influence the behavioral and physiological consequences of stress and coping.

Analgesia↗
PubMed1998

Differential response to a stress stimulus of proenkephalin peptide content in immune cells of naive and chronically stressed rats.

Proenkephalin peptides produced by endocrine and nervous tissues are involved in stress-induced immunosuppression. However, the role of peptides produced by immune cells remains unknown. The present study examines the effect of acute and chronic foot-shock stress on proenkephalin peptide content in bone marrow (BMMC), thymus (TMC), and spleen (SMC) rat mononuclear cells. Proenkephalin was not processed to met-enkephalin in BMMC, while in TMC and SMC met-enkephalin represented 10% and 26% of total met-enkephalin-containing peptides, respectively. Naive rats receiving a stress stimulus showed a significant decrease of proenkephalin derived peptides in BMMC, TMC and SMC. However, in chronically stressed rats that already showed basal low peptide levels, a new stress stimulus produced a differential response in each immune tissue. That is, in BMMC peptide levels reached control rats values; in TMC remained unmodified; and in SMC, although precursors content increased, met-enkephalin levels were even lower than those observed in acutely stressed rats. Free synenkephalin content paralleled met-enkephalin changes in SMC of acutely and chronically stressed rats. The in vitro release of met-enkephalin and free synenkephalin increased in SMC of stressed rats. Met-enkephalin produced in SMC and partially processed proenkephalin peptides detected in BMMC, were only found in macrophages. However, met-enkephalin only appeared in bone marrow macrophages after at least 4 h of cell culture. Altogether, these results suggest that a stress stimulus induced proenkephalin peptide release from immune tissue macrophages. The differential response observed in chronically stressed rats suggest an alternative activation of heterogeneous proenkephalin-storing macrophage subpopulations.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Learning under stress in the adult rat is differentially affected by 'juvenile' or 'adolescent' stress.

Epidemiological studies suggest that childhood trauma is associated with a predisposition to develop both mood and anxiety disorders, while trauma during adolescence is associated mainly with anxiety disorders. We studied in the rat the long-term consequences of 'juvenile' stress, namely stress experienced in a period in which substantial remodelling occurs across species in stress-sensitive brain areas involved in emotional and learning processing. In adulthood, 'juvenile' stressed rats exhibited reduced exploration in a novel setting, and poor avoidance learning, with 41% learning mainly to escape while 28% exhibited learned helplessness-like behaviours. In adult rats that underwent 'adolescent' stress, learned helplessness-like behaviours were not evident, although decreased exploration and poor avoidance learning were observed. This suggests that in the prepubertal phase juvenility may constitute a stress-sensitive period. The results suggest that juvenile stress induces lasting impairments in stress-coping responses. The 'juvenile' stress model presented here may be of relevance to individuals' reported predisposition to anxiety and depression following childhood trauma, and their increased susceptibility only to anxiety disorders following adolescent stress.

Adaptation, Psychological↗