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PubMed2007

Psychometric intelligence dissociates implicit and explicit learning.

The hypothesis that performance on implicit learning tasks is unrelated to psychometric intelligence was examined in a sample of 605 German pupils. Performance in artificial grammar learning, process control, and serial learning did not correlate with various measures of intelligence when participants were given standard implicit instructions. Under an explicit rule discovery instruction, however, a significant relationship between performance on the learning tasks and intelligence appeared. This finding provides support for Reber's hypothesis that implicit learning, in contrast to explicit learning, is independent of intelligence, and confirms thereby the distinction between the 2 modes of learning. However, because there were virtually no correlations among the 3 learning tasks, the assumption of a unitary ability of implicit learning was not supported.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Forgetting curves in long-term memory: evidence for a multistage model of retention.

An experimental study with 20 normal healthy young adult subjects was performed to evaluate the interaction of type of memory tasks, type of learning modalities, and length of acquisition/recall interval. Four different tasks were employed (serial learning, paired learning, rote learning, and visuolinguistic transfer), some requiring a single trial learning modality others a multitrial learning modality. Acquisition/recall intervals were immediate, intermediate (3 min), and delayed. The experimental design allowed for the comparison of effects from five different delayed recall intervals (2, 8, 12, 24, and 48 hr). Results demonstrated a specific interaction on learning rates due to different ceiling effects for the different types of memory tasks. Forgetting rates, on the other hand, demonstrated a specific effect due to type of memory tasks and learning modalities only for differences between immediate and intermediate recall. These differences remained stable during the longer intervals and were not affected by length of interval. A multistage composition of long-term retention was suggested to explain these results, and a practical indication to build experimental procedures to study memory in the clinical field was evidenced.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Relationships between measures of auditory verbal learning and executive functioning.

Relationships between performance on the California Verbal Learning Test (CVLT) and executive abilities were examined. In a sample of 115 neurological cases principal components factor analysis produced five theoretically and clinically meaningful CVLT factors. The five CVLT factors reflected general verbal learning (CVLT1), response discrimination (CVLT2), a proactive interference effect or "working memory" (CVLT3), serial learning strategy (CVLT4), and a retroactive interference effect (CVLT5). Canonical correlation between executive function measures and the five CVLT factor scores yielded one significant canonical variable accounting for 29 percent of the variance in the data. Two CVLT factors (CVLT1 and CVLT3), the Trail Making Test Part B, and Digit Span were significantly correlated with the canonical variate. Higher levels of memory performance were associated with better attention and mental tracking. Based on the present findings, attentional aspects of executive abilities appear to play a role in learning and working memory. Other aspects of executive abilities (abstraction, problem-solving, planning) appear to have minimal relationships with memory processes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Implicit spatial contextual learning in healthy aging.

Three experiments investigated the aging of implicit spatial and spatiotemporal context learning in 2 tasks. In contextual cuing, people learn to use repeated spatial configurations to facilitate search for a target, whereas in higher order serial learning, they learn to use subtle sequence regularities to respond more quickly and accurately to a series of events. Results reveal a dissociation; overall contextual cuing is spared in healthy aging, whereas higher order sequence learning is impaired in the same individuals. This finding suggests that these 2 forms of implicit learning rely on different neural substrates that age differently; the results are also consistent with recent evidence that fronto-striatal circuits are particularly susceptible to decline in health aging.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Interresponse times in serial recall: effects of intraserial repetition.

The authors examined the effects of intraserial repetition on multitrial serial learning of random consonant lists, analyzing both learning rates and perfect trial interresponse times (IRTs). Lists varied along 3 dimensions: list length, presence or absence of a repeated element, and lag between repeated elements. After achieving a forward-recall criterion on a given list, participants (N = 20) attempted backward recall. At small lags, IRTs between the repeated elements were very short (compared with IRTs from identical positions in nonrepetition lists). At larger lags, the IRT to recall the second repeated item was substantially longer than in control lists. These results reveal a latency analogue of the Ranschburg pattern seen in accuracy data. A Ranschburg pattern was also found in participants' learning rates. These results both generalize the Ranschburg phenomenon and present further challenges to theories of serial order memory.

Adult↗
PubMed1981

Learning and reaction time performance in older veterans: relationship to attitudes and life satisfaction.

Young (age 20-35) and old (age 55-70) veterans were tested on serial learning and reaction time tasks. Life satisfaction, attitudes toward older people, and physical and mental status were also assessed. Younger veterans showed better performance on both learning and psychomotor tasks than did older veterans. However, positive attitudes toward aging, and greater life satisfaction were associated with better performance on the behavioral tasks in the older group. Certain aspects of physical and mental status were also associated with better learning and reaction time scores in the elderly. These results suggest that age-related behavioral decrements may be related to psychosocial variables but that physio-medical factors may play a mediating role.

Adult↗
PubMed1980

Peripheral autonomic changes accompanying learning and reaction time performance in older people.

Heart rate, blood pressure, and electrodermal activity were assessed in old (55 to 70) and young (20 to 35) veterans during their performance on serial learning and reaction time tasks. More older than younger subjects exhibited systolic blood pressure increases during the tasks; baseline heart rate was also slower in the older subjects. However, the phasic electrodermal response of the older Ss during the reaction time task was of smaller magnitude than that of the young Ss, and there were no phasic HR differences between the groups. Learning and psychomotor performance of the older subjects who revealed systolic BP pressor responses was significantly better than that of those who showed depressor responses, but this relationship was not obtained in the younger subjects. These relationships were more pronounced on easier than on more difficult tasks.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

Age differences in implicit learning of higher order dependencies in serial patterns.

3 experiments examined serial pattern learning in younger and older adults. Unlike the usual repeating pattern, the sequences alternated between events from a repeating pattern and those determined randomly. The results indicated that no one was able to describe the regularity, but with practice every individual in all 3 age groups (including old old) became faster, more accurate, or both, on pattern trials than on random trials. Although this indicates that adults of all ages are able to learn second-order statistical dependencies in a sequence, age-related deficits were obtained in the magnitude of pattern learning. There were also age differences in what was learned, with only younger people revealing sensitivity to higher order statistical dependencies in the sequence. In addition, whereas younger people revealed evidence of their pattern learning in a subsequent conceptually driven production test, young-old and old-old people did not.

Adult↗
PubMed1978

Cautiousness and verbal learning in adulthood.

Twenty-two young (age 17-21)and 22 old (age 60-74) men and women participated in an investigation designed to determine the extent to which age differences in omission errors and performance in a serial learning task are accounted for by cautiousness. Age differences were found on the measures of cautiousness, and verbal learning, with young adults making more correct responses and proportionately fewer omission errors on the learning task and taking greater risks on the risk-taking tasks. The results indicated that cautiousness measures accounted for age differences in omission errors but not in performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1993

Fluctuations in mood state and learning and retrieval.

The present study investigated whether learning and retrieval are associated with changes in mood state. 50 college students (20 men and 30 women) were assigned to one of five treatment conditions: Happy-Happy, Sad-Sad, Neutral-Neutral, Happy-Sad, and Sad-Happy. Mood was induced via the Velten procedure. During the first mood-induction phase, students were exposed to a serial-learning task and recall trial, followed by a digit-symbol task. In the next phase, students were given a 5-min. muscle-relaxation exercise and a 5-min. distracting task. In the final phase, students underwent a second mood-induction phase, and a subsequent recall trial and digit-symbol task. Analyses indicated that recall was significantly greater in the Happy-Happy and Sad-Sad groups. Findings for the Neutral-Neutral group were mixed. Results are discussed in terms of support for the concept of context-related, mood-state-dependent recall.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

Transfer of control in ambiguous discriminations.

Rats' acquisition and transfer of performance in ambiguous discriminations was examined using discrete-trial operant lever-press procedures. Rats learned serial ambiguous discriminations (X----A+, A-; B+, X----B-) by acquiring both positive and negative occasion setting functions to the X feature. Mutual transfer occurred among cues from serial ambiguous, feature positive (Y----C+, C-), and feature negative (Y----C-, C+) discriminations, but that transfer did not extend to cues not trained within one of those serial discriminations. The ambiguous feature's positive occasion setting powers were unaffected by nonreinforced presentation of that feature alone, and posttraining counterconditioning did not eliminate the feature's ability to serve as a negative occasion setter. Occasion setting was not acquired with simultaneous ambiguous discriminations (XA+, A-; XB-, B+), which apparently were solved with a configural strategy.

Animals↗