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PubMed1988

Diurnal weight gain as a predictor of serum sodium concentration in patients with psychosis, intermittent hyponatremia, and polydipsia (PIP syndrome).

Ten male patients (mean age 37.3 +/- 6.4 years) with psychosis, intermittent hyponatremia, and polydipsia (PIP syndrome) underwent measurement of weight, sitting and standing blood pressure, and serum sodium concentration at 7 a.m. and 4 p.m. weekly for 8 consecutive weeks. Blood pressure was higher in the afternoon than in the morning. The diurnal decrease in serum sodium (141.4 +/- 2.8 to 134.2 +/- 4.8 mEq/l) was associated with a diurnal increase in weight (78.4 +/- 9.7 to 80.0 +/- 10.3 kg). When the weight increase was normalized by dividing by 7 a.m. weight (NDWG), the following relationship evolved: diurnal serum sodium decrease = 3.060 + [201.728 x NDWG]. Therefore, NDWG accounted for 63.1% of the variability of serum sodium. Using the known relationship of plasma water, total body water, and total body weight, we calculated that antidiuresis (afternoon weight gain) accounted for 62.5% of afternoon hyponatremia. Thus, two separate methods of calculating the relationship between antidiuresis and hyponatremia provided remarkably similar findings. We derived a table to predict 4 p.m. serum sodium values based on 7 a.m. weight, 7 a.m. serum sodium, and 4 p.m. weight.

Adult↗
PubMed1985

The effect of 6-OHDA lesions of the lateral septum on schedule-induced polydipsia.

In this study the relationship between 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of dopaminergic innervation of the lateral septum and schedule-induced polydipsia was examined. Animals with lesions were found to have a significant increase in water intake during a test involving an intermittent schedule of food delivery. Additional experiments with these animals showed that lesions had no effect on: (i) spontaneous drinking, the amount of drinking after 24 h food or water deprivation, water intake following a hypertonic saline challenge; (ii) eating behavior with or without food deprivation; and (iii) spontaneous locomotor activity. This increase in adjunctive behavior is discussed in the light of an enhanced frustrative effect induced by the septal lesions.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Pituitary-adrenal correlates of schedule-induced polydipsia and wheel running in rats.

To investigate the pituitary-adrenal correlates of schedule-induced behaviours, rats were submitted to a fixed-time 60-s schedule of food reinforcement, with free access to either a water spout or a running wheel. Schedule-induced water drinking (polydipsia) was accompanied by an important drop in plasma corticosterone levels, while wheel running resulted in a significant increase in plasma corticosterone concentrations. This contrast between the pituitary-adrenal consequences of schedule-induced drinking and wheel running was not due to functional differences between the two activities since wheel running was shown to display all the characteristics of schedule-induced activities, mainly excessiveness, differential time distribution and dependance on deprivation level and reinforcement rate.

Animals↗
PubMed1988

The relationship between schedule-induced polydipsia and pituitary-adrenal activity: pharmacological and behavioral manipulations.

The relationship between schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) and pituitary-adrenal activity in rats was investigated using two different approaches that involved either capitalizing on pre-existing individual differences in the propensity to show SIP, or by inducing differences in plasma corticosterone by behavioral or pharmacological means. Thus, in Expt. 1, SIP was monitored after corticosterone levels were pharmacologically altered with drugs that act at the benzodiazepine receptor. In Expt. 2, the relationship between individual differences in water consumption during SIP and plasma corticosterone levels was determined. In addition, corticosterone levels were determined after the prevention of drinking during SIP. Results indicated an inverse relationship between plasma corticosterone levels and SIP. It was also found that corticosterone levels were significantly higher following SIP with water available than after SIP without water. The implications of these results for previous hypotheses of SIP are discussed.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Relationship between schedule-induced polydipsia and amphetamine intravenous self-administration. Individual differences and role of experience.

It has been suggested that drug abuse belongs to a larger class of addictive behaviors, including smoking, eating or gambling, which are mediated by common processes. Since laboratory animals can be induced to develop drug self-administration as well as indulge in compulsive eating or drinking, the present experiments were designed to find out if the same animals were susceptible to both behaviors. Only certain rats develop amphetamine intravenous self-administration (SA), and this susceptibility can be predicted from their enhanced locomotor response in a novel environment. Furthermore, excessive, non-regulatory drinking, referred to as schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP), in response to the periodic delivery of small amounts of food is only observed in certain rats. Since the propensity to SA has been shown to be influenced by experimental factors and testing for SIP was found to modify behavioral and biological parameters related to the propensity for drug-seeking, we also investigated whether experience of SIP influenced the subsequent development of SA. In Expt. 1, the rats that developed SA also acquired SIP, and had a higher locomotor response to novelty. The results of Expt. 2 showed that testing for SIP influenced the predisposition to develop amphetamine SA. When animals were tested for SIP first, the polydipsic rats subsequently failed to acquire SA, and had a reduced locomotor response to novelty. These changes seemed to be specific to the experience of SIP, as individual differences in the locomotor response to novelty were unchanged when animals were housed in standard laboratory conditions over a period of one month between the two tests.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1994

Differential influence of corticosterone and dexamethasone on schedule-induced polydipsia in adrenalectomized rats.

Previous studies have shown that adrenalectomy prevents the normal acquisition of schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP), while corticosterone (CORT) administration reinstates this behavior in adrenalectomized (ADX) rats. These studies investigated which corticosteroid receptor is responsible for mediating CORT effects on SIP. In Experiment I the effects of dexamethasone (DEX) and CORT on the acquisition of SIP were studied. DEX and CORT pellets (respectively 15 mg and 200 mg) were implanted subcutaneously in ADX rats. CORT but not DEX replacement was able to reinstate SIP in ADX rats. Because DEX binds almost exclusively to glucocorticoid receptors (GRs), while CORT binds to both GRs and mineralocorticoid receptors (MRs), results from Experiment I indicated that occupancy of GRs alone is not sufficient for SIP acquisition. In Experiment II CORT pellets of different concentrations (1, 10, 50, 200 mg) were implanted in ADX rats in order to determine whether MRs alone, or a combination of GRs and MRs are required for SIP reinstatement. Results from Experiment II showed that the 1 and 10 mg CORT pellets were not able to reinstate SIP in adrenalectomized rats, while animals implanted with 50 or 200 mg pellets did exhibit the behavior. These results indicate that occupancy of both MRs and GRs is required for SIP acquisition.

Adrenal Glands↗
PubMed1996

Schedule-induced polydipsia and the nucleus accumbens: electrochemical measurements of dopamine efflux and effects of excitotoxic lesions in the core.

The efflux of dopamine (DA) in the nucleus accumbens (NAcc) core during the acquisition of schedule-induced polydipsia (drinking in response to intermittent food presentation) was measured using rapid scan voltammetry. DA efflux increased throughout the SIP sessions, always reaching a peak after the session had terminated. There was, however, no relationship between the acquisition of the drinking response to intermittent food presentation and DA efflux. When water was absent from the test chamber, DA efflux still increased and reached a peak after food delivery was terminated, dissociating drinking and increased DA efflux. Taken in conjunction with previously presented data, these results suggest that the presence of DA in the NAcc core might be necessary for the development of SIP but that its efflux does not bear a systematic relationship to the acquisition of adjunctive behaviour. In a second experiment the effects of NMDA-induced lesions of the NAcc core on the acquisition and performance of SIP were examined. Lesioned rats did not differ to controls in terms of water intake, mean drinking bout length, latency to panel press for food or to begin drinking. The number of drinking bouts/min was reduced in lesioned rats, but did not reach statistical significance; the number of panel presses/min was significantly reduced in lesioned rats. These data demonstrate that the NAcc core is not necessary for the development of SIP but that elements of performance are affected. This suggests that the development of SIP can be fractionated and that different neural elements control different aspects of its expression. These data are used to support the hypothesis that the NAcc core is involved in focusing behaviour and regulating switching between response options.

Animals↗
PubMed1993

Neuropsychological manifestations of hyponatremia in chronic schizophrenic patients with the syndrome of psychosis, intermittent hyponatremia and polydipsia (PIP).

We examined the neuropsychological sequelae of water intoxication in nine schizophrenic patients with the syndrome of psychosis, intermittent hyponatremia and polydipsia (PIP). Patients were assessed using a standardized test battery on two occasions following laboratory blood work: once during hyponatremia (serum sodium < 130 mmol/l) and once during normonatremia (serum sodium > 136 mmol/l). Results revealed significant deficits during hyponatremia involving complex information processing skills such as mental flexibility and verbal fluency. In contrast, short-term memory was intact and no deficits in sustained attention or visual-motor scanning were observed. Our results underscore the dramatic fluctuations in neuropsychological functioning due to metabolic and osmotic changes during water loading in PIP syndrome patients. In addition, we found that the neuropsychological effects of hyponatremia are remarkably consistent across patients. These complications, if not recognized, are likely to contribute to worsening of psychosis despite appropriate pharmacological treatment while severely limiting patient ability to actively participate in behavioral interventions.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Effects of water loading in schizophrenic patients with polydipsia-hyponatremia: an MRI pilot study.

We conducted an MRI pilot study of three schizophrenic patients with the syndrome of polydipsia-hyponatremia. Paired MRI scans were obtained at baseline and in the water-loaded state to study the acute effects of water loading and accompanying changes in serum sodium and osmolality on brain structures. We report the pilot data on the observed individual MRI changes of reduced volume of the lateral ventricles in all three patients, and the third ventricles in two patients, in the water-loaded state. These changes were not statistically significant possibly because of small sample size.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Cigarette use, drinking and voiding in schizophrenic patients with polydipsia and hyponatremia.

Pre-smoking versus post-smoking amounts of drinking and voiding were compared in ten state hospital patients with schizophrenia and polydipsia. Cigarette use was significantly correlated with total amount drunk but was not associated with increased drinking or decreased voiding immediately following smoking. These findings revealed no nicotine effects upon thirst drive or urinary output, but suggest that drinking and smoking represent associated repetitive behaviors.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

A sudden death during a saline drip in a schizophrenic patient with polydipsia.

A young woman with polydipsia died suddenly while receiving a normal saline drip in a hospital for psychiatric care. Slight symptoms due to water intoxication, more specifically, nausea, vomiting, and anorexia, appeared and her serum sodium and potassium measured 106 and 1.7 mEq/l, respectively. General convulsions are thought to be the most common result of water intoxication in emergency cases, however, when she was found with circulatory collapse, no severe neurological symptoms were present. The cause of her collapse did not seem to be due to hyponatremia but to hypopotassemia. Although epinephrine is contraindicated with some psychiatric drugs, the doctor used it to raise blood pressure in treating circulatory collapse. It is possible that epinephrine induced cardiac arrest.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Acceleration of onset of action in schedule-induced polydipsia: combinations of SSRI and 5-HT1A and 5-HT1B receptor antagonists.

Onset of action is a key unmet need in the treatment of depression. However, very few preclinical models in which the effects of antidepressants can be shown are suitable for screening for onset. In this context, previous literature suggests that a slow onset of action of selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) is observed in schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP). The current investigation was performed to determine the latency to reduce SIP of the SSRI, fluoxetine, and of two treatments known to facilitate 5-HT neurotransmission to a greater extent than an SSRI alone. These treatments included interaction studies for fluoxetine+the 5-HT(1A) antagonist, WAY 100635, and for fluoxetine+the 5-HT(1B) partial agonist, GR 127935. Food-restricted rats were trained on a fixed interval schedule with drinking water freely available. Once water intake was stable, rats were randomly assigned to vehicle of treatment groups. Daily treatment was continued for 3 (interaction studies) or 18 days (fluoxetine alone study). Fluoxetine significantly reduced SIP after 5-6 days of treatment, with the maximal effect evidenced after 8 days. WAY 100635 and GR 127935 accelerated the onset of action of fluoxetine, with significant effects observed on treatment day 1. These data suggest that SIP may be useful to assess the onset of action of serotonin enhancers.

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Differential effects of morphine and LiCl on schedule-induced polydipsia.

Lithium chloride (LiCl) and morphine both produce a conditioned taste avoidance response, while only LiCl is able to elicit a conditioned rejection response (taste reactivity), indicating that the effects of conditioning are drug and preparation dependent. The present experiments extend this assessment to another behavioral preparation, schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP), by examining the ability of LiCl and morphine to produce conditioned suppression of nonregulatory drinking. In Experiment 1, schedule-induced saccharin consumption was followed by LiCl or morphine (at doses comparably effective in conditioning taste avoidance under water deprivation) or by the distilled water vehicle. Although both LiCl and morphine suppressed SIP, morphine produced a significantly weaker suppression than did LiCl. Using a massed feeding design in which animals received all their food pellets in a single meal, Experiment 2 determined that LiCl and morphine were equally effective in suppressing consumption, indicating that the differential effects seen under SIP were due to the schedule of spaced food pellet deliveries. The basis for the differential effects of LiCl and morphine on SIP may be a function of an increase in the reinforcing properties of drugs of abuse (such as morphine) within this procedure that mask the acquisition and/or display of the conditioned suppression. If so, then this procedure may be useful in assessing the reinforcing properties of such drugs.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

A patient using ziprasidone with polydipsia, seizure, hyponatremia and rhabdomyolysis.

We aimed to report a case with rhabdomyolysis related to hyponatremia and/or its correction. A 32-year-old male schizophrenic patient on ziprasidone treatment was admitted to the hospital following a seizure. Patient had primary polydipsia and secondarily developed hyponatremia. After the correction of hyponatremia, due to the high liver enzyme levels, he was diagnosed as rhabdomyolysis. Although the role of antipsychotics in this situation is speculative, development of rhabdomyolysis related to hyponatremia and/or its correction should not be underestimated and should be assessed thoroughly.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Differences in corticosterone level due to inter-food interval length: implications for schedule-induced polydipsia.

The purpose of this study was to determine the effects of different food-reinforcement schedules on plasma corticosterone (CORT), and its possible involvement in the acquisition and maintenance of schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP). In Experiment 1, three groups of rats were submitted to two different fixed-interval (FI) schedules with inter-food intervals of 30 and 120 s, and to a massed-feeding presentation for 40 days until SIP was well stabilized. In Experiment 2, six groups of rats were exposed to the same schedules, FI 30s and FI 120s, and to the massed-feeding condition, but no water bottles were presented. CORT levels were determined on Days 3 and 40. Results of Experiment 1 indicated that FI 30s schedule, but not FI 120s or the massed-feeding condition, induces excessive drinking from Day 3. Results in Experiment 2 indicated that CORT levels were similar for all the groups on Day 3. However, only animals on the FI 30s schedule did increase their CORT levels on Day 40, with no variation in the hormone in the other two conditions, FI 120s and massed-feeding presentations. The data are discussed in terms of the implications of these results for hypotheses of SIP as anxiolitic behavior.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

A comparison of polydipsia prevalence among chronic psychiatric patients using three measurement approaches.

Many previous prevalence studies of polydipsia (PD) have utilized single and often non-biologic measures. In this study we estimated prevalence using specific gravity of urine (SPGU), normalized diurnal weight gain (NDWG), and staff identification (staff ID). Agreement between these two biologic and one behavioral measure was assessed. A total of 572 psychiatric inpatients were assessed for SPGU and NDWG. Unit staff were asked to identify PD patients. Positive and negative PD groups were formed separately based on the SPGU, NDWG, and staff ID data. All three measures were collected on the same day. Prevalence data for the biologic measures varied. The estimate for PD by SPGU (< 1.009 cutoff) was higher (43.4% of sample) than that of NDWG (> 2.5%; 25.4%) or staff ID (21.4%). These prevalence rates did not change substantially after exclusion of medical causes of polyuria. Agreement, assessed by the kappa statistic, was uniformly low among the measures. Weak association between the measures reflects their multidetermined, nonspecific nature, and highlights the lack of a diagnostic standard in the field. The observed prevalence rates must be considered rough approximations. Associations between the measures and certain subject characteristics suggest the measures may identify different types of potential PD patients. These different types of patients are discussed, as are other issues in the measurement of PD. The data suggest estimates of PD are a function of the type of measure used as even biologic measures vary greatly.

Adult↗
PubMed1997

The generation and maintenance of schedule-induced polydipsia in normal male rats without weight reduction.

Experiment One demonstrated that two normal male Sprague-Dawley rats (approximately 60 days old) with free access to food and two control rats whose weights were held constant by dietary restriction acquired schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP) in daily 33-35 min sessions of fixed-time 60-s food delivery. Three of the rats showed rapid acquisition of SIP; the fourth acquired SIP more slowly and consumed less per session the other three rats. After a 36-40 day period without sessions, the constant-weight rats showed a 37% decrease in overall consumption due to reduced drinking bout length. The SIP of the free-feeding rats was not affected by the interruption. After 90-100 periodic food delivery sessions, all subjects consumed an average of 11.2-12.2 mL per session compared with 1.8-4.8 mL per session in baseline sessions with massed food presentations. Experiment Two replicated the acquisition phase of Experiment One using two non-weight-reduced rats of the age and size of those typically used in SIP studies (approximately 30 weeks old). Both acquired SIP, although one showed only a small average increase in consumption per session over baseline (2.8 mL/session under periodic food vs. 0.8 mL following massed-food presentations). Before weight reduction, the stronger drinker consumed approximately 8.8 mL per session compared with an average of 0.6 mL per session in baseline. After weight reduction, both exhibited strong SIP (18-19 mL per session in the final five sessions). This study demonstrates that weight reduction is not a necessary condition for the generation and maintenance of SIP in rats.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Strain-dependent differences in schedule-induced polydipsia: an assessment in Lewis and Fischer rats.

Strain-dependent differences have been used to highlight unknown genetic contributions to important behavioral and physiological end points. In this regard, the Fischer (F344) and Lewis (LEW) rat strains have often been studied because they exhibit a myriad of behavioral and physiological differences. Recently, schedule-induced polydipsia (SIP), a potential model of stress and drug abuse, has been reported to differ between the two strains (see [Pharmacol. Biochem. Behav. 67 (2002) 809]) with F344 rats displaying greater levels of consumption than LEW rats. Given the importance of SIP as a behavioral model of stress and of drug abuse, the present study further explored SIP in F344 and LEW strains by assessing the acquisition and steady-state performance of SIP (under a fixed-time 30 schedule of food delivery; FT30), its characteristic postprandial temporal licking pattern and its modulation by variations in the food delivery schedule (FT15, FT30 and FT60). F344 rats acquired SIP at a faster rate and drank at a higher asymptotic level than LEW rats. Both strains displayed the typical inverted U-shaped post-pellet pattern of drinking and changes in levels of consumption (and displacement of the initiation of post-pellet drinking) with changes in the FT value, supporting the position that the increased drinking seen in both groups was schedule induced. These strain differences in SIP are consistent with the fact that the F344 and LEW strains differ on other behavioral and physiological indices of stress and raise the issue of the use of this model in the assessment of differential drug intake between the two strains.

Animals↗