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At least 217 records · Page 12Linked to original sources
PubMed1995

The origin of land plants: phylogenetic relationships among charophytes, bryophytes, and vascular plants inferred from complete small-subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences.

Complete nuclear-encoded small-subunit 18S rRNA (= SSU rRNA) gene sequences were determined for the prasinophyte green alga Mantoniella squamata; the charophycean green algae Chara foetida, Coleochaete scutata, Klebsormidium flaccidum, and Mougeotia scalaris; the bryophytes Marchantia polymorpha, Fossombronia pusilla, and Funaria hygrometrica; and the lycopod Selaginella galleottii to get a better insight into the sequential evolution from green algae to land plants. The sequences were aligned with several previously published SSU rRNA sequences from chlorophytic and charophytic algae as well as from land plants to infer the evolutionary relationships for major evolutionary lineages within the Chlorobionta by distance matrix, maximum parsimony, and maximum likelihood analyses. Phylogenetic trees created by the different methods consistently placed the Charophyceae on the branch leading to the land plants. The Charophyceae were shown to be polyphyletic with the Charales ("charalean" algae) diverging earlier than the Coleochaetales, Klebsormidiales, Chlorokybales, and Zygnematales ("charophycean" algae) which branch from a point closer to the land plants in most analyses. Maximum parsimony and maximum likelihood analyses imply a successive evolution from "charophycean" algae, particularly Coleochaetales, to bryophytes, lycopods, and seed plants. In contrast, distance matrix methods group the bryophytes together with the "charophycean" algae, suggesting a separate evolution of these organisms compared with the club moss and the seed plants.

Biological Evolution↗
PubMed2004

Expression of functional human coagulation factor XIII A-domain in plant cell suspensions and whole plants.

Coagulation factor XIII, a zymogen present in blood as a tetramer (A2B2) of A- and B-domains, is one of the components of many "wound sealants" which are proposed for use or currently in use as effective hemostatic agents, sealants, and tissue adhesives in surgery. After activation by alpha-thrombin cleavage, coagulation factor XIII A-domain, a transglutaminase, is formed and catalyzes the covalent cross-linking of the alpha- and gamma-chains of linear fibrin to form homopolymers, which can quickly stop bleeding. We have successfully expressed the A-domain of factor XIII in both plant cell cultures and whole plants. Transgenic plant cell culture allows a rapid method for testing production feasibility while expression in whole plants demonstrates an economic production system for recombinant human plasma-based proteins. The expressed factor XIII A-domain had a similar size as that of human plasma-derived factor XIII. Crude plant extract containing recombinant factor XIII A-domain showed transglutaminase activity with monodansylcadaverine and casein as substrates and cross-linking activity in the presence of linear fibrin. The expression of factor XIII A-domain was not affected by plant leaf position.

Factor XIII↗
PubMed2006

Trace element availability and plant growth in a mine-spill-contaminated soil under assisted natural remediation II. Plants.

In this second part, we evaluated the effects of different amendments on plant growth (Agrostis stolonifera L.), and trace element accumulation and removal by plants in a trace element (As, Cd, Cu, Pb and Zn) contaminated soil. Description of the various treatments is given in Part I of this work. The plants were grown for consecutive periods (2002, 2003, 2004), 5 months each and harvested twice in each period. Results showed that plant growth was enhanced and trace element concentrations in plant were reduced in SL, MWC, BC and LEO treatments in the first period. No significant differences were observed in subsequent periods. This seemed to be related with changes in soil pH. Removal of trace elements was higher in SL, MWC, BC and LEO treatments due to higher biomass production in the first period. In following years no significant differences between treatments were found. Data from Part I of this study were also used to compare trace element bioavailable concentrations extracted with 0.01 M CaCl2 and 0.05 M EDTA with trace elements in plant. We observed that 0.01 M CaCl2 was more suitable for determination of bioavailable concentrations and that extraction with EDTA overestimated biovailability of trace elements in amended treatments, especially in those where composts were added.

Agrostis↗
PubMed2002

Expression in plants and immunogenicity of plant virus-based experimental rabies vaccine.

A new approach to the production and delivery of vaccine antigens is the use of engineered amino virus-based vectors. A chimeric peptide containing antigenic determinants from rabies virus glycoprotein (G protein) (amino acids 253-275) and nucleoprotein (N protein) (amino acids 404-418) was PCR-amplified and cloned as a translational fusion product with the alfalfa mosaic virus (AlMV) coat protein (CP). This recombinant CP was expressed in two plant virus-based expression systems. The first one utilized transgenic Nicotiana tabacum cv. Samsun NN plants providing replicative functions in trans for full-length infectious RNA3 of AlMV (NF1-g24). The second one utilized Nicotiana benthamiana and spinach (Spinacia oleracea) plants using autonomously replicating tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) lacking native CP (Av/A4-g24). Recombinant virus containing the chimeric rabies virus epitope was isolated from infected transgenic N. tabacum cv. Samsun NN plants and used for parenteral immunization of mice. Mice immunized with recombinant virus were protected against challenge infection. Based on the previously demonstrated efficacy of this plant virus-based experimental rabies vaccine when orally administered to mice in virus-infected unprocessed raw spinach leaves, we assessed its efficacy in human volunteers. Three of five volunteers who had previously been immunized against rabies virus with a conventional vaccine specifically responded against the peptide antigen after ingesting spinach leaves infected with the recombinant virus. When rabies virus non-immune individuals were fed the same material, 5/9 demonstrated significant antibody responses to either rabies virus or AlMV. Following a single dose of conventional rabies virus vaccine, three of these individuals showed detectable levels of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies, whereas none of five controls revealed these antibodies. These findings provide clear indication of the potential of the plant virus-based expression systems as supplementary oral booster for rabies vaccinations.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2003

Effects of air current speed on gas exchange in plant leaves and plant canopies.

To obtain basic data on adequate air circulation to enhance plant growth in a closed plant culture system in a controlled ecological life support system (CELSS), an investigation was made of the effects of the air current speed ranging from 0.01 to 1.0 m s-1 on photosynthesis and transpiration in sweetpotato leaves and photosynthesis in tomato seedlings canopies. The gas exchange rates in leaves and canopies were determined by using a chamber method with an infrared gas analyzer. The net photosynthetic rate and the transpiration rate increased significantly as the air current speeds increased from 0.01 to 0.2 m s-1. The transpiration rate increased gradually at air current speeds ranging from 0.2 to 1.0 m s-1 while the net photosynthetic rate was almost constant at air current speeds ranging from 0.5 to 1.0 m s-1. The increase in the net photosynthetic and transpiration rates were strongly dependent on decreased boundary-layer resistances against gas diffusion. The net photosynthetic rate of the plant canopy was doubled by an increased air current speed from 0.1 to 1.0 m s-1 above the plant canopy. The results demonstrate the importance of air movement around plants for enhancing the gas exchange in the leaf, especially in plant canopies in the CELSS.

Air Conditioning↗
PubMed2003

Investigative proteomics: identification of an unknown plant virus from infected plants using mass spectrometry.

We describe the identification of a previously uncharacterized plant virus that is capable of infecting Nicotiana spp. and Arabidopsis thaliana. Protein extracts were first prepared from leaf tissue of uninfected tobacco plants, and the proteins were visualized with two-dimensional electrophoresis (2-DE). Matching gels were then run using protein extracts of a tobacco plant infected with tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). After visual comparison, the proteins spots that were differentially expressed in infected plant tissues were cut from the gels and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS/MS). Tandem mass spectrometry data of individual peptides was searched with SEQUEST. Using this approach we demonstrated a successful proof-of-concept experiment by identifying TMV proteins present in the total protein extract. The same procedure was then applied to tobacco plants infected with a laboratory viral isolate of unknown identity. Several of the differentially expressed protein spots were identified as proteins of potato virus X (PVX), thus successfully identifying the causative agent of the uncharacterized viral infection. We believe this demonstrates that HPLC-MS/MS can be used to successfully characterize unknown viruses in infected plants.

Amino Acid Sequence↗
PubMed2001

Transgenic tobacco plants expressing the maize Cat2 gene have altered catalase levels that affect plant-pathogen interactions and resistance to oxidative stress.

Transgenic tobacco genotypes expressing the maize Cat2 gene were developed with altered catalase (CAT) levels that resulted in a moderate increase of CAT activity in two transgenic lines. Bacterial infection, with a pathogen that does not share homology with the transgene, caused local and systemic down-regulation of the steady state mRNA levels of the 35S-driven transgene in a manner resembling post-transcriptional gene silencing (PTGS). Phenotypic symptoms of hypersensitive response (HR) and systemic acquired resistance (SAR) were similar in control SR1 and the transgenic genotypes. Induction of hin1, used as a molecular marker of plant responses to invading bacteria, displayed a similar pattern between control and transgenic lines, but some variation in the levels of expression was observed. The major difference was recorded in the ability of the plants to restrict bacterial growth during HR. All transgenic lines were more sensitive than control SR1, with two lines exhibiting a significantly reduced capacity to inhibit bacterial growth. This is consistent with the putative enhanced capacity of transgenic lines containing the maize Cat2 gene to more effectively remove H2O2, which may act as a direct antimicrobial agent. Steady state mRNA levels of PR-1 and PR-5 varied among the genotypes, possibly indicating differences in strength of the SAR signal. Transgenic line 2, which was the most sensitive during HR, was most effective in restricting bacterial growth during SAR. This indicates that a reverse correlation might exist between the severity of infection during HR and the ability to inhibit bacterial growth during SAR. Growth under high light conditions affected plant-pathogen interactions in control SR1, as well as in transgenic line 8. Early induction and higher expression of PR-1 and PR-5 was detected in both SR1 and line 8 in high light-grown plants as compared with their low light-grown counterparts. Our data indicate that growth under high light conditions can predispose plants to better resist pathogen attack, and may amplify local and systemic defense signals. Finally, one transgenic line, which exhibited 1.3-fold higher average CAT activity in comparison with the untransformed SR1 control, suffered significantly less methyl viologen (MV) damage than untransformed control plants at moderate and high MV concentrations.

Blotting, Southern↗
PubMed2003

A plant signal peptide-hepatitis B surface antigen fusion protein with enhanced stability and immunogenicity expressed in plant cells.

The use of transgenic plants to express orally immunogenic protein antigens is an emerging strategy for vaccine biomanufacturing and delivery. This concept has particular suitability for developing countries. One factor that has limited the development of this technology is the relatively modest levels of accumulation of some antigenic proteins in plant tissues. We used fusion protein design to improve expression of the hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) by attempting to mimic the process of HBsAg targeting to the endoplasmic reticulum of human liver cells during hepatitis B virus infection. We created a gene encoding a recombinant HBsAg modified to contain a plant signal peptide fused to its amino terminus. The signal peptide from soybean vegetative storage protein vspA (VSP alpha S) directed endoplasmic reticulum targeting of HBsAg in plant cells, but was not cleaved and resulted in enhanced VSP alpha S-HBsAg fusion accumulation. This product was more stable and presented the protective "a" antigenic determinant to significantly higher levels than unmodified native HBsAg expressed in plant cells. It also showed a greater extent of intermolecular disulfide bond formation and formation of virus-like particles. Moreover, VSP alpha S-HBsAg stimulated higher levels of serum IgG than native HBsAg when injected into mice. We conclude that HBsAg tolerates a polypeptide fusion at the amino terminus and that VSP alpha S-HBsAg is an improved antigen for plant-based expression of a subunit vaccine for hepatitis B virus.

Amino Acid Motifs↗
PubMed1998

Core alpha1,3-fucose is a key part of the epitope recognized by antibodies reacting against plant N-linked oligosaccharides and is present in a wide variety of plant extracts.

Carbohydrates have been suggested to account for some IgE cross-reactions between various plant, insect, and mollusk extracts, while some IgG antibodies have been successfully raised against plant glycoproteins. A rat monoclonal antibody raised against elderberry abscission tissue (YZ1/2.23) and rabbit polyclonal antiserum against horseradish peroxidase were screened for reactivity in enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay against a range of plant glycoproteins and extracts as well as neoglycoproteins, bee venom phospholipase, and several animal glycoproteins. Of the oligosaccharides tested, Man3XylFucGlcNAc2(MMXF3) derived from horseradish peroxidase was the most potent inhibitor of the reactivity of both YZ1/2.23 and anti-horseradish peroxidase to native horseradish peroxidase glycoprotein. The reactivity of YZ1/2. 23 and anti-horseradish peroxidase against Sophora japonica lectin was most inhibited by a neoglycoconjugate of bromelain glycopeptide cross-linked to bovine serum albumin, while the defucosylated form of this conjugate was inactive as an inhibitor. A wide range of plant extracts was found to react against YZ1/2.23 and anti-horseradish peroxidase, with particularly high reactivities recorded for grass pollen and nut extracts. All these reactivities were inhibitable with the bromelain glycopeptide/bovine serum albumin conjugate. Bee venom phospholipase and whole bee venom reacted weakly with YZ1/2.23 but more strongly with anti-horseradish peroxidase in a manner inhibitable with the bromelain glycopeptide/bovine serum albumin conjugate, while hemocyanin from Helix pomatia reacted poorly with YZ1/2.23 but did react with anti-horseradish peroxidase. It is concluded that the alpha1, 3-fucose residue linked to the chitobiose core of plant glycoproteins is the most important residue in the epitope recognized by the two antibodies studied, but that the polyclonal anti-horseradish peroxidase antiserum also contains antibody populations that recognize the xylose linked to the core mannose of many plant and gastropod N-linked oligosaccharides.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Invasive exotic plants suffer less herbivory than non-invasive exotic plants.

We surveyed naturally occurring leaf herbivory in nine invasive and nine non-invasive exotic plant species sampled in natural areas in Ontario, New York and Massachusetts, and found that invasive plants experienced, on average, 96% less leaf damage than non-invasive species. Invasive plants were also more taxonomically isolated than non-invasive plants, belonging to families with 75% fewer native North American genera. However, the relationship between taxonomic isolation at the family level and herbivory was weak. We suggest that invasive plants may possess novel phytochemicals with anti-herbivore properties in addition to allelopathic and anti-microbial characteristics. Herbivory could be employed as an easily measured predictor of the likelihood that recently introduced exotic plants may become invasive.

Ecosystem↗
PubMed2006

Cross-species translocation of mRNA from host plants into the parasitic plant dodder.

An intriguing new paradigm in plant biology is that systemically mobile mRNAs play a role in coordinating development. In this process, specific mRNAs are loaded into the phloem transport stream for translocation to distant tissues, where they may impact on developmental processes. However, despite its potential significance for plant growth regulation, mRNA trafficking remains poorly understood and challenging to study. Here, we show that phloem-mobile mRNAs can also traffic between widely divergent species from a host to the plant parasite lespedeza dodder (Cuscuta pentagona Engelm.). Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and microarray analysis were used to detect specific tomato (Lycopersicon esculentum Mill.) transcripts in dodder grown on tomato that were not present in control dodder grown on other host species. Foreign transcripts included LeGAI, which has previously been shown to be translocated in the phloem, as well as nine other transcripts not reported to be mobile. Dodders are parasitic plants that obtain resources by drawing from the phloem of a host plant and have joint plasmodesmata with host cortical cells. Although viruses are known to move between dodder and its hosts, translocation of endogenous plant mRNA has not been reported. These results point to a potentially new level of interspecies communication, and raise questions about the ability of parasites to recognize, use, and respond to transcripts acquired from their hosts.

Arabidopsis↗
PubMed2000

Optical coherence microscopy. A technology for rapid, in vivo, non-destructive visualization of plants and plant cells.

We describe the development and utilization of a new imaging technology for plant biology, optical coherence microscopy (OCM), which allows true in vivo visualization of plants and plant cells. This novel technology allows the direct, in situ (e.g. plants in soil), three-dimensional visualization of cells and events in shoot tissues without causing damage. With OCM we can image cells or groups of cells that are up to 1 mm deep in living tissues, resolving structures less than 5 microm in size, with a typical collection time of 5 to 6 min. OCM measures the inherent light-scattering properties of biological tissues and cells. These optical properties vary and provide endogenous developmental markers. Singly scattered photons from small (e.g. 5 x 5 x 10 microm) volume elements (voxels) are collected, assembled, and quantitatively false-colored to form a three-dimensional image. These images can be cropped or sliced in any plane. Adjusting the colors and opacities assigned to voxels allows us to enhance different features within the tissues and cells. We show that light-scattering properties are the greatest in regions of the Arabidopsis shoot undergoing developmental processes. In large cells, high light scattering is produced from nuclei, intermediate light scatter is produced from cytoplasm, and little if any light scattering originates from the vacuole and cell wall. OCM allows the rapid, repetitive, non-destructive collection of quantitative data about inherent properties of cells, so it provides a means of continuously monitoring plants and plant cells during development and in response to exogenous stimuli.

Microscopy↗
PubMed2001

Organismal view of a plant and a plant cell.

Cell walls are at the basis of a structural, four-dimensional framework of plant form and growth time. Recent rapid progress of cell wall research has led to the situation where the old, long-lasting juxtaposition: "living" protoplast--"dead" cell wall, had to be dropped. Various attempts of re-interpretation cast, however, some doubts over the very nature of plant cell and the status of the walls within such a cell. Following a comparison of exocellular matrices of plants and animals, their position in relation to cells and organisms is analysed. A multitude of perspectives of the biological organisation of living beings is presented with particular attention paid to the cellular and organismal theories. Basic tenets and resulting corollaries of both theories are compared, and evolutionary and developmental implications are considered. Based on these data, "The Plant Body"--an organismal concept of plants and plant cells is described.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Study into wild Egyptian plants of potential medicinal activity. Ninth communication: hypoglycaemic activity of some selected plants in normal fasting and alloxanised rats.

31 desert plants belonging to 17 families were collected from different Egyptian localities. 21 plants extracts were orally given to normal rats, and 15 were tested on fasted and to alloxanised rats. The results were compared with a standard oral hypoglycaemic drug (Daonil, Hoechst) used as a positive control. The following findings were obtained: 8 plants exhibited persistent hypoglycaemic effects, Lycium shawii, Salvia (S.) aegyptiaca, Pergularia tomentosa, Convolvulus (C.) althaeoides, Haloxylon salicornicum, Ephedra alata, Scrophularia deserti, and Crotalaria aegyptiaca. Transient hypoglycaemic effects appeared only 1 hour after administration in response to 4 plants, Silena succulenta, Lygos raetam, C. lanatus, and Pulicaria incisa. In the cases of Ochradenus baccatus and Zygophyllum album, slow hypoglycaemic activity was produced and appeared 3 hours after administration. 5 plants showed hypoglycaemic effects viz, Thymus capitatus, Launaea nudicaulis, Conyza dioscorides, Nitraria retusa, and Limonium tubiflorum. Among the 15 plant extracts tested on alloxanised diabetic rats only 4 showed hypoglycaemic effects more potent than those of the administered dose of Daonil. These were Matthiola livida, S. aegyptiaca, Astragalus species, and Arthrocnemum glaucum. The hypoglycaemic effect of S. aegyptiaca in fasting rats has been confirmed also in alloxanised diabetic animals. This emphasises the importance of conducting both experiments in order to obtain a reliable conclusion.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Control of carbon partitioning and photosynthesis by the triose phosphate/phosphate translocator in transgenic tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L.). I. Comparative physiological analysis of tobacco plants with antisense repression and overexpression of the triose phosphate/phosphate translocator.

The physiological properties of transgenic tobacco plants (Nicotiana tabacum L.) with decreased or increased transport capacities of the chloroplast triose phosphate/phosphate translocator (TPT) were compared in order to investigate the extent to which the TPT controls metabolic fluxes in wild-type tobacco. For this purpose, tobacco lines with an antisense repression of the endogenous TPT (alphaTPT) and tobacco lines overexpressing the TPT gene isolated from the C4 plant Flaveria trinervia (FtTPT) were used. The F. trinervia TPT expressed in yeast cells exhibited transport characteristics identical to the TPT from C3 plants. Neither antisense TPT plants nor FtTPT overexpressors showed a phenotype when grown in a greenhouse in air. Contents of starch and soluble sugars in upper source leaves were similar in TPT underexpressors and FtTPT overexpressors compared to the wild type at the end of the photoperiod. The FtTPT overexpressors incorporated more 14CO2 in sucrose than the wild type, indicating that the TPT limits sucrose biosynthesis in the wild type. There were only small effects on labelling of amino acids and organic acids. The mobilisation of starch was enhanced in alphaTPT lines but decreased in FtTPT overexpressors compared to the wild type. Enzymes involved in starch mobilisation or utilisation, such as alpha-amylase or hexokinase were increased in alphaTPT plants and, in the case of amylases, decreased in FtTPT overexpressors. Moreover, alpha-amylase activity exhibited a pronounced diurnal variation in alphaTPT lines with a maximum activity after 8 h in the light. These changes in starch hydrolytic activities were confirmed by activity staining of native gels. Activities of glucan phosphorylases were unaffected by either a decrease or an increase in TPT activity. There were also effects of TPT activities on steady-state levels of phosphorylated intermediates as well as total amino acids and malate. In air, there was no or little effect of altered TPT transport activity on either rates of photosynthetic electron transport and/or CO2 assimilation. However, in elevated CO2 (1500 microl x l(-1)) and low O2 (2%) the rate of CO2 assimilation was decreased in the alphaTPT lines and was slightly higher in FtTPT lines. This shows that the TPT limits maximum rates of photosynthesis in the wild type.

Carbon Dioxide↗
PubMed2004

Plant vascular architecture and within-plant spatial patterns in resource quality following herbivory.

In this study, we used plant vascular architecture as a framework from which to predict induced changes in resource quality for Lema trilinea feeding on the host plant Solanum dulcamara at both low and high levels of herbivory. The systemic patterns of allocation of dye from a capillary tube inserted onto the petiole of the first true leaf and sections of the stem were used to establish the degree of vascular connectivity among different leaf positions. Induced changes in the activity of two defensive proteins, proteinase inhibitor (PI) and polyphenol oxidase (PPO), as well as larval L. trilinea performance, were measured in weakly or strongly connected leaves on plants with the first leaf damaged or undamaged by adult L. trilinea. At high levels of herbivory, larval performance decreased on the sixth leaf, which has strong vascular connections to the first leaf, yet increased on the fifth leaf, which has weak vascular connections to the first leaf. PPO activity increased in both the fifth and sixth leaf, while PI activity decreased in the fifth leaf although remaining unchanged in the sixth leaf. At low levels of herbivory, a decrease in larval performance was observed in the sixth leaf, but no change occurred in the weakly connected fifth leaf. Hence, plant vascular architecture clearly predicted within-plant changes in resource quality following only small amounts of herbivore damage.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Arabidopsis AtDGK7, the smallest member of plant diacylglycerol kinases (DGKs), displays unique biochemical features and saturates at low substrate concentration: the DGK inhibitor R59022 differentially affects AtDGK2 and AtDGK7 activity in vitro and alters plant growth and development.

Diacylglycerol kinase (DGK) regulates the level of the second messenger diacylglycerol and produces phosphatidic acid (PA), another signaling molecule. The Arabidopsis thaliana genome encodes seven putative diacylglycerol kinase isozymes (named AtDGK1 to -7), structurally falling into three major clusters. So far, enzymatic activity has not been reported for any plant Cluster II DGK. Here, we demonstrate that a representative of this cluster, AtDGK7, is biochemically active when expressed as a recombinant protein in Escherichia coli. AtDGK7, encoded by gene locus At4g30340, contains 374 amino acids with an apparent molecular mass of 41.2 kDa. AtDGK7 harbors an N-terminal catalytic domain, but in contrast to various characterized DGKs (including AtDGK2), it lacks a cysteine-rich domain at its N terminus, and, importantly, its C-terminal DGK accessory domain is incomplete. Recombinant AtDGK7 expressed in E. coli exhibits Michaelis-Menten type kinetics with 1,2-dioleoyl-sn-glycerol as substrate. AtDGK7 activity was affected by pH, detergents, and the DGK inhibitor R59022. We demonstrate that both AtDGK2 and AtDGK7 phosphorylate diacylglycerol molecular species that are typically found in plants, indicating that both enzymes convert physiologically relevant substrates. AtDGK7 is expressed throughout the Arabidopsis plant, but expression is strongest in flowers and young seedlings. Expression of AtDGK2 is transiently induced by wounding. R59022 at approximately 80 mum inhibits root elongation and lateral root formation and reduces plant growth, indicating that DGKs play an important role in plant development.

Adenosine Triphosphate↗
PubMed2003

Development of the anti-gravitational system in land plants and its implication for the interaction between plants and other organisms.

After they first went ashore during the Silurian epoch, plants have developed the anti-gravitational system to survive under terrestrial environment with the strong gravitational force. The cell wall acts as a principal component of the anti-gravitational system in plants, probably with the aid of links to the plasma membrane and the cytoskeleton. The cell wall has well developed in land plants and often represents more than 90% of the dry weight of the plant. The development of the cell wall has greatly influenced the interaction between plants and other organisms, such as feeding, sheltering, invasion, and symbiosis, and has been involved in the regulation of the global environment throughout the evolution.

Biological Evolution↗