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PubMed2006

An analogue study of the effects of Psychological Debriefing on eyewitness memory.

Sixty-one participants from the community participated in a randomised controlled trial of group debriefing to assess the effect of this intervention upon memory for a stressful event. Participants were randomly allocated to one of three groups: debriefing; debriefing with an experimenter confederate present (who supplied three pieces of misinformation to the group regarding the stressful event); and a no-treatment control. All groups were shown a very stressful video and were again reviewed after 1 month. Members of the debriefing group where a confederate provided misinformation were more likely to recall this misinformation as fact than members of the other two groups. The debriefing group was also more accurate in their recall of peripheral content than the confederate group. Across all groups, participants were found to be more accurate at central rather than peripheral recall yet more confident for incorrect memories of the video than correct memories.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

The effects of prior knowledge on children's memory and suggestibility.

In this study, 5- and 6-year-olds were read a story and asked to recall its details. Two independent factors-prestory knowledge and poststory suggestions-were crossed to examine the effects on children's story recall. The results indicated that prestory social knowledge about the story protagonist as well as academic knowledge relating to the content of the story influenced the accuracy of children's recall immediately after the story presentation. Following the suggestive interview, children reported interviewer-provided social and academic misinformation to a greater extent when the misinformation was consistent with their prior knowledge. In contrast, children were more likely to refute misinformation that contradicted their academic knowledge. These findings are discussed in terms of the mechanisms underlying the knowledge-memory and knowledge-suggestibility linkages.

Attention↗
PubMed2001

Perceptions of an old female eyewitness: is the older eyewitness believable?

Young adults rated an old female witness (82 years) to be less competent but more honest than a young female witness (28 years). The effect of age stereotyping on believability was assessed indirectly by using a variant of Loftus' misinformation paradigm. Regression analysis showed that the more competent a witness was perceived as being, the more influential was the misinformation she provided. This was true, however, only when the witness was young because the relatively lower competence of the old witness was associated with nonsignificant misinformation effects. These data suggest that negative beliefs associating incompetence with old age may compromise the believability of older eyewitnesses.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Barriers to Medicaid enrollment: who is at risk?

OBJECTIVES: We identified factors associated with levels of knowledge about Medicaid eligibility rules and perceived Medicaid enrollment barriers. METHODS: Community health center patients who were parents of children potentially eligible for Medicaid (n=901) were interviewed in person during their clinic visit between April and December 1999. RESULTS: Individuals reporting physical health problems were more likely to be misinformed as were non-Hispanic Black individuals, compared with non-Hispanic White individuals. In states where more policies had been enacted to simplify Medicaid enrollment procedures, individuals were less likely to be misinformed. Individuals reporting mental health problems, those with less education, and women were more likely to perceive Medicaid enrollment barriers. Prior experience in Medicaid was associated with both a reduced risk of perceiving Medicaid enrollment barriers and being misinformed. CONCLUSIONS: Findings highlight target groups for whom additional outreach and additional simplification policies may be most needed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

[How does the emotionality of the witnessed event affect the source monitoring ability?].

This study investigated if emotionality affects the occurrence of source misattribution, which seems to be the most valid mechanism of misinformation effect. A half of 120 participants saw an emotionally stressful videotaped movie, and the other half a neutral one. Then, they answered the questionnaire, which included misinformation about the details of the movie. After 15 minutes of 2 days, they answered the source monitoring test, which required them to select the source of the memory of details that had been presented in the movie and/or in the questionnaire, or not either of them. Several patterns of differences in test performance appeared between the emotional condition and the neutral condition. These differences suggest that the ability for source monitoring declined more saliently with time in the emotional condition than in the neutral condition, and that memories about visually central details are less vulnerable to misinformation effect with 15 minutes delay in the emotional condition than in the neutral condition.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Patient misconceptions and ethical challenges in radioactive iodine scanning and therapy.

The use and nature of radioactive iodine (RAI) are complex topics for patients with thyroid conditions to understand. Fear and anxiety over its use, misinformation in patient advocacy books and on the Internet, medical jargon, confusion regarding postscanning and posttreatment procedures, patient literacy, thyroid health status, and several other socioeconomic factors can create serious barriers to genuine informed consent in RAI scanning and treatment. The following discussion will review the origins of patient misconceptions and misinterpretations, including international differences in physician attitudes regarding RAI usage. Next, this article will present the core ethical duties, problems, and moral dilemmas that can arise in the RAI setting. Upon completion of this article, the reader should be able to describe the core ethical principles of respect for persons (patient autonomy), beneficence, nonmaleficence, and justice; describe the 3 components of informed consent; identify common barriers to informed consent and describe how such barriers can lead to misconceptions, misinformation, and refusal of treatment with RAI; and summarize where RAI candidates and patients first look for information and identify the common ways in which misinformation surfaces.

Attitude to Health↗
PubMed1989

Factors that influence the elderly to use traditional or nontraditional nutrition information sources.

This study analyzed sociodemographic variables, access to medical care, health status-related variables, and nutrition status-related variables to determine their ability to predict an orientation toward traditional or nontraditional nutrition information sources among aged subjects in Eugene, OR. Data were collected from 165 randomly selected subjects by trained interviewers using face-to-face interviews. Nutritionist orientation was measured by a Traditional/Nontraditional Index (TNT Index) developed for the study. Nutrition knowledge and misinformation, supplement use, and sources of nutrition information were also investigated. Predictors of nontraditional nutritionist orientation were acceptance of nutrition misinformation and male sex (adjusted R2 = .09). For women, predictors of a similar orientation were acceptance of nutrition misinformation, low knowledge of general nutrition information, and low functional health status (adjusted R2 = .19). Mean nutrition knowledge scores were high, with a mean of 4.7 (standard deviation [SD] = 0.8) on a scale ranging from 4 (high) to 8 (low). However, many of the subjects did not list dairy foods (28%) and grains (27%) as necessary in the diet. In addition, belief in certain nutrition myths was widespread. More than 58% were taking one or more supplements (mean = 1.4 supplements per day, SD = 1.98). Physicians were mentioned as most likely sources of nutrition information, with dietitians and health food store personnel mentioned second, indicating the importance of marketing efforts for registered dietitians.

Aged↗
PubMed1995

Adolescent sexuality in Saint Petersburg, Russia.

OBJECTIVES: To describe adolescent knowledge, attitudes and behavior relevant to sexuality and the prevention of AIDS in Saint Petersburg, Russia. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional descriptive study was designed, taking a random sample of 10th grade students at 14 Saint Petersburg grade schools, which were stratified by socio-economic district. A total of 185 female and 185 male students completed a self-administered 46-item questionnaire, with a response rate of 94%. RESULTS: From the questionnaires, 20% of females and 31% of males reported having had sexual intercourse and 25% of females and 12% of males reported being sexually abused. These adolescents displayed much misinformation about sexual matters and AIDS prevention. Only 25% of the females and 34% of the males believed that condoms should be used just once, and 38% of each sex believed that if washed, they could be used multiple times. Many respondents, especially males, rated their knowledge about sexual matters as high or adequate. Support for sex education was strong, especially among females, and respondents generally saw sex education as improving sexual pleasure. Most information sources about sexual activity were either not considered very credible, or not adequately accessible. CONCLUSIONS: Substantial reported rates of sexual abuse, sexual experience and much misinformation and unwarranted attitudes toward condoms, safer sexual practices and HIV/AIDS suggest the need for vigorous sex education programs for Russian youth. The early and sustained education of girls is especially important. Sex education should be introduced at an early age so that children can be taught how to reduce the risks of sexual abuse, HIV infection and other sexually transmitted diseases, and to improve their sexual experiences as responsible adults.

Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome↗
PubMed2002

Analysis of cases of harm associated with use of health information on the internet.

CONTEXT: There is concern about the potential harm associated with the use of poor quality health information on the Internet. To date, there have been no systematic attempts to examine reported cases of such harm. METHODS: We conducted a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature, to evaluate the number and characteristics of reported cases of harm associated with the use of health information obtained on the Internet. Using a refined strategy, we searched MEDLINE (from 1966 to February 2001), CINAHL (from 1982 to March 2001), HealthStar (from 1975 to December 2000), PsycINFO (from 1967 to March 2001), and EMBASE (from 1980 to March 2001). This was complemented with searches of reference lists. Two authors separately reviewed the abstracts to identify articles that describe at least 1 case of harm associated with the use of health information found on the Internet. Articles of any format and in any language deemed possibly relevant by either researcher were obtained and reviewed by both researches. RESULTS: The search yielded 1512 abstracts. Of these 186 papers were reviewed in full text. Of these, 3 articles satisfied the selection criteria. One article described 2 cases in which improper Internet searches led to emotional harm. The second article described dogs being poisoned because of misinformation obtained on the Internet. The third article described hepatorenal failure in an oncology patient who obtained misinformation about the use of medication on the Internet. CONCLUSIONS: Despite the popularity of publications warning of the potential harm associated with using health information from the Internet, our search found few reported cases of harm. This may be due to an actual low risk for harm associated with the use of information available on the Internet, to underreporting of cases, or to bias.

Health Education↗
PubMed1998

The distinctions of false and fuzzy memories.

Fuzzy-trace theory has recently been used to account for various types of "false memories" (Brainerd & Reyna, 1998, this issue). Although components of fuzzy-trace theory-in particular the distinction between gist and verbatim traces-overlap with distinctions made in other theories of memory, those in fuzzy-trace theory provide an illuminating account of the conditions under which semantic associates of previously seen items are erroneously recognized. However, the theory is less useful in explaining misinformation effects. Fuzzy-trace theory's differential success in accounting for these two types of errors follows from one of its central implications: whereas misinformation effects involve false memories, the erroneous recognition of related lures is due to a reliance on authentic, but underspecified, gist memories. As its name suggests, fuzzy-trace theory is best at explaining memory errors resulting from fuzzy traces. Consistent with this view, fuzzy-trace theory helps to explain another source of memory errors (verbal overshadowing of nonverbal memories) that may also be best characterized as resulting from a reliance on fuzzy, rather than false, memories.

Humans↗
PubMed2000

Dissociating automatic and intentional processes in children's eyewitness memory.

Two experiments investigated the contribution of automatic and intentional memory processes to 5- and 8-year-old children's acceptance of misinformation. Children were presented with a picture story followed by misleading postevent details that either were read to participants or were self-generated in response to semantic and perceptual hints. Children were then given a recognition test under 2 instructional conditions. In the inclusion condition children reported whether they remembered items from either of the previous phases. In the exclusion condition children were instructed to exclude postevent suggestions. Children were more likely to accept misled-generate items compared to misled-read items in the inclusion condition, but the opposite was the case under exclusion instructions. Both automaticity and recollection (cf. L. L. Jacoby, 1991) influenced misinformation acceptance, but the role of automatic processes declined with age.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2005

Post-choice information processing by pigeons.

In a conditional discrimination (matching-to-sample), a sample is followed by two comparison stimuli, one of which is correct, depending on the sample. Evidence from previous research suggests that if the stimulus display is maintained following an incorrect response (the so-called penalty-time procedure), acquisition by pigeons is facilitated. The present research tested the hypothesis that the penalty-time procedure allows the pigeons to review and learn from the maintained stimulus display following an incorrect choice. It did so by including a penalty-time group for which, following an incorrect choice, the sample changed to match the incorrect comparison, thus providing the pigeons with post-choice 'misinformation.' This misinformation group acquired the matching task significantly slower than the standard penalty-time group (that had no change in the sample following an error). Furthermore, acquisition of matching by a control group that received no penalty time fell midway between the other two groups, suggesting that the pigeons did not merely take more care in making choices because of the aversiveness of penalty-time. Thus, it appears that in the acquisition of matching-to-sample, when the stimulus display is maintained following an incorrect choice, the pigeons can review or acquire information from the display. This is the first time that such an effect has been reported for a nonhuman species.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

An assessment of the quality of information available on the internet about the IUD and the potential impact on contraceptive choices.

This study analyzed data gathered from a survey of online information on the intrauterine device (IUD) to determine the content and quality of information available to consumers and providers, as evidenced by the presence or absence of a series of attributes measuring the accuracy and objectiveness of information provided. While information on the IUD is consistently available on websites providing information about birth control options, there is a great deal of misinformation about the IUD on the Internet. A substantial percentage of sites, designed for both healthcare providers and consumers, state that the IUD increases risk of pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy and infertility. This misinformation can effectively limit access to the IUD, so it is vital to monitor the quality of information available to consumers online and encourage clinicians to take an active role in correcting misperceptions among their patients.

Contraception Behavior↗
PubMed2006

The development of the memorability-based strategy: insight from a training study.

We investigated whether the memorability-based strategy, a process supporting the rejection of nonexperienced event occurrence, could be promoted through training. The performance of children who received memorability-based training was compared with that of (a) children who received source-monitoring training and (b) children who did not receive any specific training but were instructed to be as accurate as possible. Participants (142 6- to 10-year-olds) enacted common and bizarre actions. Eighteen days later, participants received misinformation about the first session. Five days after being misinformed, children were questioned about the first session. Compared with children in the no training condition, those in both training conditions reported significantly more true events, but only older children who received the memorability-based training were more likely to reject bizarre suggested events. Age interacted with action type when metacognitive assessments about false event rejection were examined, consistent with the idea that the use of the memorability-based strategy develops late during the elementary school years.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Public education: promoting the midwifery model of care in partnership with the Maternity Center Association.

Most people who are ignorant or misinformed about midwifery are also misinformed about birth, the needs of pregnant women, and problems related to the care provided to most pregnant women in this country. An understanding of these issues is the conceptual substrate that makes it possible to understand and value midwifery. Although midwives need to educate people about midwives and midwifery, it is also necessary for them to educate people about the nature of childbirth, the needs of pregnant women in general, and appropriate (and inappropriate) maternity care. Midwives are experts in these subjects, but they have to go beyond talking about midwifery--beyond talking about themselves. To maximize their effectiveness, midwives should work in partnership with individuals and organizations that support the midwifery model of care--regardless of the professional background of the person who practices this model. Midwives can advance public education by collaborating with organizations, such as the Maternity Center Association (MCA), which supports family-centered maternity care, based on the midwifery model. MCA's current public education activities are described and two new MCA brochures are presented. Information that supports midwifery care may be particularly effective when it is presented by an organization with broader objectives.

Female↗
PubMed1996

Targeted A --> T and G --> T mutations induced by site-specific deoxyadenosine and deoxyguanosine adducts, respectively, from the (+)-anti-diol epoxide of dibenz[a,j]anthracene in M13mp7L2.

The studies described in this report directly examined the mutagenicity in Escherichia coli of both a deoxyadenosine (dAdo) and a deoxyguanosine (dGuo) adduct derived from (+)-anti-dibenz[a,j]-anthracene-3,4-diol 1,2-epoxide [(+)anti-DB[a,j]A-DE] that were site-specifically placed in a single-stranded M13mp7L2 replication vector. An 11-base oligonucleotide (5'-CTC ACG CTT CT-3') containing either a single (+)anti-DB[a,j]A-DE--trans-N2-dGuo or (+)anti-DB[a,j]A-DE--trans-N6dAdo adduct was successfully incorporated into single-stranded M13mp7L2 plasmid via ligation. In vitro studies using E. coli DNA polymerase I (Klenow fragment)indicated that both adducts were effective blocks for polymerase action. E. coli strains JM103 and JM103 uvrA6 were subsequently transformed with control (unadducted) and adduct-containing M13mp7L2 constructs followed by analysis of progeny DNA. In both JM103 and JM103 uvrA6 cells, plaque yields were markedly reduced with adduct containing vectors compared to control vectors. Activation of the inducible bacterial DNA repair system (SOS) by UV light only slightly increased the number of plaques recovered from either bacterial strain transformed with adduct-containing vectors. Targeted mutations were obtained with both adduct-containing vectors in both bacterial strains, whereas no mutations were detected in plaques recovered from control M13mp7L2 vectors. In JM103 cells, (+)anti-DB[a,j]A-DE--N6-dAdo induced exclusively A --> t transversions and (+)anti-DB[a,j]A-DE--N2-dGuo induced exclusively G --> T transversions. In JM103 uvrA6 cells, similar targeted transversion mutations were also obtained except that a few C deletions (i.e., aprroximately 10% of the mutations) were detected immediately 3' to the dAdo adduct. While mutagenesis was SOS dependent in JM103 cells [<0.15% (-SOS) vs approximately 1.3% (+SOS)], it appeared to be SOS independent in JM103 uvrA6 cells (approximately 1-2% in the presence or absence of SOS induction). It is argued that adduct-induced G --> T mutations can be rationalized by either misinformational or noninformational mechanisms. In contrast, A --> T mutations are unlikely to arise via a misinformational pathway, which provides the strongest support to date that bulky DNA adducts can induce mutations via a noninformational pathway.

Adenine↗
PubMed2001

Is that what I said?: witnesses' responses to interviewer modifications.

Modifications occur when interviewers contradict statements made by witnesses or imply that witnesses provided information that they (interviewers) did not provide. Because of their suggestive nature, modifications threaten the reliability of investigative interviews. This study investigated developmental differences in witnesses' responses to modifications during interviews as well as in inclusion of modified misinformation in subsequent answers. Preschool, elementary school, and college students were interviewed about a video presentation. In the experimental conditions, the interviewer contradicted information about the video provided by the participants. Participants then answered two sets of follow-up questions: one immediately following the interview and another 6-8 days later. Results indicated that participants were more likely to ignore modifications than to correct or agree with them. Adult participants were most likely to disagree with modifications. Preschoolers were most likely to incorporate modified misinformation into subsequent answers. Implications of these findings for investigative interviews are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Health information on the Internet and people living with HIV/AIDS: information evaluation and coping styles.

Individuals who seek information on the Internet to cope with chronic illness may be vulnerable to misinformation and unfounded claims. This study examined the association between health-related coping and the evaluation of health information. Men (n = 347) and women (n = 72) who were living with HIV/AIDS and reported currently using the Internet completed measures assessing their Internet use. Health Web sites downloaded from the Internet were also rated for quality of information. HIV-positive adults commonly used the Internet to find health information (66%) and to learn about clinical trials (25%); they also talked to their physicians about information found online (24%). In a multivariate analysis, assigning higher credibility to unfounded Internet information was predicted by lower incomes, less education, and avoidant coping styles. People who cope by avoiding health information may be vulnerable to misinformation and unfounded claims that are commonly encountered on the Internet.

Adaptation, Psychological↗