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PubMed2004

Gender differences in the perception of chest pain.

This study investigated gender differences in pain perception as characterized by pain symptoms in patients diagnosed with unstable angina pectoris. Twenty-nine women and 32 men were asked to characterize their chest pain using a semi-open questionnaire assessing pain intensity (by numerical rating), pain location, pain characteristics, complaints following chest pain, factors that evoked or reduced chest pain, and whether the chest pain was related to heart disease. Significant gender differences were found. Women scored the intensity of their chest pain significantly higher than men (Chi-square 14.8, P < 0.0001), and related their chest pain less to heart disease (Chi-square 24.6, P < 0.0001). The women described an atypical clinical picture of chest pain that was significantly different from men's. The results are discussed in light of pschological theories regarding gender differences in pain perception. These findings imply the need for special attention to the unique clinical pictures that appear for women and men.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Gender differences in psychosocial influence and rehabilitation outcomes for work-disabled individuals with chronic musculoskeletal pain.

INTRODUCTION: This study aimed to investigate gender differences in rehabilitation outcomes and how psychosocial factors may interact to influence rehabilitation outcome in work-disabled with chronic musculoskeletal pain. METHODS: One hundred and sixty eight (n=168) persons (mean age = 45.5/SD=9.0) participating in a multidisciplinary rehabilitation program, were included. Data on pain, functional health and psychosocial factors were collected previous to treatment, after 5 week intensive training and after 52 week follow-up period. Demographics, socio-economics and data on personal characteristics were also collected. RESULTS: Significant (p<.05) gender differences were found on sleeplessness, meaningfulness and manageability. No significant gender differences were found on pain or functional health status variables. Gender differences (p<.001) were found in how socio-demographic and psychosocial factors influence rehabilitation outcomes in terms of functional health status. CONCLUSIONS: These data suggests that knowledge of gender differences and the way psychosocial factors influence rehabilitation outcomes must be taken into account in designing rehabilitation intervention.

Activities of Daily Living↗
PubMed2001

Gender differences in personality traits across cultures: robust and surprising findings.

Secondary analyses of Revised NEO Personality Inventory data from 26 cultures (N = 23,031) suggest that gender differences are small relative to individual variation within genders; differences are replicated across cultures for both college-age and adult samples, and differences are broadly consistent with gender stereotypes: Women reported themselves to be higher in Neuroticism, Agreeableness, Warmth, and Openness to Feelings, whereas men were higher in Assertiveness and Openness to Ideas. Contrary to predictions from evolutionary theory, the magnitude of gender differences varied across cultures. Contrary to predictions from the social role model, gender differences were most pronounced in European and American cultures in which traditional sex roles are minimized. Possible explanations for this surprising finding are discussed, including the attribution of masculine and feminine behaviors to roles rather than traits in traditional cultures.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Gender differences in level and change in cognitive functioning. Results from the Longitudinal Aging Study Amsterdam.

BACKGROUND: Gender differences in level of cognitive functioning are frequently observed, but little is known about gender differences in rate of decline of cognitive functioning. OBJECTIVE: The present study aims to describe variability between and within men and women specified for four different cognitive abilities at baseline, and variability in change in these abilities among men and women over 6 years. METHODS: We started with a study sample of 1132 men and 1175 women, with a measurement interval of 3 years. At wave 3 of the study, 1552 of the respondents from wave 1 were still present. Differences in level and rate of change were estimated with latent change models. RESULTS: Women have higher levels of memory functioning then men, but no gender differences were observed for speed or non-verbal reasoning changes. CONCLUSION: In spite of evidence for a stronger age-related atrophy of the brain structure of men, no gender differences in decline of cognitive functions could be observed.

Aged↗
PubMed1997

Gender differences in resting metabolic rate and noradrenaline kinetics in older individuals.

The physiological factors mediating gender differences in resting metabolic rate (RMR) in older individuals are presently unclear. We examined the contribution of sympathetic nervous system activity to gender differences in resting metabolic rate in older men and women and its relation to body fat distribution. We performed measurements of noradrenaline (NA) kinetics from infusions of [3H]-NA, RMR, body fat distribution, body composition, peak Vo2 and dietary intake in 29 older men (69 +/- 6 years) and 26 older women (65 +/- 5 years). Older men weighed more (P < 0.01) and had a greater fat-free mass (P < 0.01) and a larger waist circumference (P < 0.01) than older women. Older men had a higher RMR (P < 0.05) than older women, which persisted after controlling for differences in fat-free mass and fat mass. Older men also showed a greater NA appearance rate (P < 0.01) at rest than older women. The higher NA appearance rate in older men was partly related to their greater waist circumference (r = 0.50, P < 0.01). We explored the sympathetic contribution to gender differences in RMR by statistically controlling for differences in body composition and NA appearance rate. After this procedure, we found no gender differences in adjusted RMR between older men (4.3 +/- 0.5 kJ min(-1)) and older women (4.3 +/- 0.4 kJ min(-1)). Our results suggest that: (a) older men have a higher RMR than older women independent of differences in body composition; (b) the higher RMR in older men may be partly due to higher levels of sympathetic nervous system activity; (c) the higher sympathetic nervous system activity in older men is partly related to their greater waist circumference, a proxy measure of central body fatness.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Gender differences in the ratio between humerus width and length are established prior to puberty.

SUMMARY: On a sample of 1,317 children aged 9.9 years we developed a novel method of measuring humeral dimensions from total body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scans and showed that gender differences in the ratio between humeral width and length are established prior to puberty. INTRODUCTION: It is recognised that long bone cross-sectional area is greater in males compared to females, which is thought to reflect more rapid periosteal bone growth in boys. However, it is currently unclear whether these findings reflect gender differences in bone size or shape. In the present study, we investigated whether gender differences exist in the balance between longitudinal and periosteal long bone growth in children, leading to gender differences in bone shape, based on a novel method for evaluating shape of the humerus. We also examined whether these differences are established prior to puberty. METHODS: Length, area and width of the humerus were estimated from total body DXA scans in 1,317 children aged 9.9 +/- 0.33 years, who had participated in a nested case-control study of fractures within the Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children (ALSPAC) (a geographically based birth cohort based in South West England). No differences were observed with respect to parameters of humeral geometry according to fracture history, and so both groups were pooled for further analysis. Aspect ratio (AR) of the humerus was calculated as humeral width divided by length. Total body height and weight were measured at the same time as the DXA scan. Puberty was assessed using self-completion questionnaires. RESULTS: Humeral width and length were positively associated with age and height in boys and girls combined (P<0.001), and with Tanner stage in girls (P<0.002). In contrast, age, height and Tanner stage were not related to humeral AR. We then examined gender differences in humeral shape according to pubertal stage. In prepubertal children (i.e. Tanner stage 1), humeral length was similar in boys and girls, but width (1.92 vs 1.88 cm, P<0.001) and area (47.7 vs 46.9 cm(2), P<0.001) were greater in boys, resulting in a greater AR (7.78 vs 7.53, P<0.001). Similar gender differences were observed in early pubertal children (i.e. Tanner stage 2). CONCLUSION: We conclude that the greater periosteal diameter of boys compared to girls reflects differences in the balance between longitudinal and periosteal bone growth. Interestingly, resulting gender differences in humeral AR are established in prepubertal children.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2002

Gender differences in collegiate risk factors for heavy episodic drinking.

OBJECTIVE: The present research examines gender differences in the way risk factors for heavy episodic drinking operate among undergraduate students. METHOD: A web-based survey was administered to students attending a large, midwestern research university in the spring of 1999. The sample consisted of 2,041 undergraduate students with a mean age of 21.1 years; 51% were female; 72% were white, 12% Asian, 5% African American, 4% Hispanic and 7% of other races. Heavy episodic drinking was defined as having five or more drinks in a row for men and four or more for women in the last 2 weeks. Two multiple risk factor approaches, continuous and categorical, were used to examine gender differences, with the latter focusing on three drinking patterns (nonheavy episodic drinking, heavy episodic drinking, and frequent heavy episodic drinking). RESULTS: The data indicated gender differences and similarities among risk factors for heavy episodic drinking within four major domains of risk factors (background, motivational, social context and behavioral). There were significant differences in the way class year and living arrangements operated as risk factors between undergraduate men and women. Gender similarities existed for precollege drinking, drinking motivations and several behavioral measures. The categorical analysis revealed several risk factors unique to the most harmful drinking pattern. CONCLUSIONS: This study lends support for gender differences between individual risk factors for heavy episodic drinking among undergraduate students. These differences have important implications for planning research and interventions aimed at reducing collegiate heavy episodic drinking.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Is the gender difference in LDL size explained by the metabolic complications of visceral obesity?

BACKGROUND: Several studies have reported a significant gender difference in low-density lipoprotein (LDL) size, with men being characterized by smaller, denser LDL particles than women, and it has been suggested that the contribution of the greater accumulation of visceral adipose tissue in men compared with women may be a factor potentially contributing to the gender difference in LDL heterogeneity. MATERIALS AND METHODS: We measured LDL particle size by 2-16% nondenaturing polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis in 299 men and 231 women in whom visceral adipose tissue accumulation was measured by computed tomography. A fasting plasma lipoprotein-lipid profile was also obtained in all subjects. RESULTS: Overall, the men were characterized by a more deteriorated metabolic risk factor profile, which included higher plasma insulin and triglyceride levels, a greater visceral adipose tissue accumulation (P < 0.001) and smaller LDL particles (251.7 +/- 5.2 vs. 254.4 +/- 4.2 A, P < 0.0001). This gender difference in LDL peak particle diameter remained significant (252.4 +/- 4.3 vs. 253.5 +/- 4.3 A, P < 0.01) after adjustment for sex-specific differences in plasma triglyceride levels by covariance analysis. Significant negative correlations were noted between the LDL particle diameter and the triglyceride concentrations in both genders (r = -0.52 and r = -0.36, P < 0.0001 for the men and women, respectively), with no gender difference in this relationship being found. However, viscerally obese women (visceral adipose tissue levels > 100 cm2) with increased plasma triglyceride concentrations (> 2.0 mmol L-1) still had larger LDL particles than viscerally obese men with a similar elevation in their triglyceride levels (251.6 +/- 4.9 vs. 248.7 +/- 4.5 A, P < 0.01). CONCLUSIONS: Results of the present study suggest that the reduced LDL particle size observed in men compared with women cannot be entirely explained by their higher visceral adipose tissue accumulation and increased plasma triglyceride levels. Moreover, the gender difference in LDL size could be influenced, at least in part, by the severity of the hypertriglyceridaemic state.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1994

Gender differences in dream perspectives.

A study exploring gender differences in self-reported dream perspectives was performed with 282 college students. Significantly more of the 164 women reported dreaming exclusively in first person and more of the 114 men exclusively in third person. Also, gender differences were found for those who dreamed in mixed perspective, a combination of first- and third-person points of view. Possible reasons for these differences were suggested and further research posited.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Gender differences in depression risk and coping factors in a clinical sample.

OBJECTIVE: To examine gender differences in depression risk and coping factors in a clinical sample of patients with a diagnosis of DSM-IV major depression. METHOD: Patients were assessed for substance use and abuse, family history of psychiatric disorder, interpersonal depressogenic factors and lifetime history of anxiety disorders. Trait anxiety, coping styles when depressed, parental bonding, marital features and personality style were also measured. Patients were reassessed at 12-month follow-up. RESULTS: There were few gender differences in experience of depression (either in duration, type or severity prior to treatment) in a group with established episodes of major depression but women reported more emotional arousability when depressed. Women reported higher rates of dysfunctional parenting and childhood sexual abuse, and rated their partners as less caring and as more likely to be a depressogenic stressor. Men were more likely to have a generalized anxiety disorder at assessment, to use recreational drugs prior to presentation. Men were rated as having a more rigid personality style and 'Cluster A' personality traits both at assessment and follow-up. CONCLUSION: There were few gender differences in severity or course of established episodes of major depression. Gender differences were related to levels of arousal, anxiety disorders, and repertoires for dealing with depression, rather than depressive symptoms per se.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2006

Gender differences in the fatigability of the inspiratory muscles.

PURPOSE: The purpose of the present study was to determine whether gender differences are present in the fatigability of the inspiratory muscles of humans. Based on evidence for a gender difference in the oxygen cost of breathing, we hypothesized that females would result in a greater magnitude and/or faster rate of inspiratory muscle fatigue than males. METHODS: Eleven females and males (N = 22) performed resistive breathing at a target pressure of 70% of maximal inspiratory pressure (PImax). Rate of inspiratory muscle fatigue was calculated from measures of PImax taken every 2 min during resistive breathing, and recovery of inspiratory muscle strength was assessed up to 45 min following task failure. RESULTS: Resting PImax was found to be lower for females than males (F:137.0 +/- 7.6 cm H2O; M:172.5 +/- 9.8 cm H2O, mean +/- SE, P </= 0.05). During resistive breathing, females exhibited a slower absolute and relative rate of muscle fatigue than males (F: 1.5 +/- 0.4 cm H2O.min(-1); M: -2.9 +/- 0.3 cm H2O.min(-1); P </=0.05). Females and males resulted in a similar decrease in PImax at task failure (15%), and no gender difference was found for recovery of inspiratory muscle strength. Separate analyses were performed in a subgroup of females and males that were matched for resting PImax. Females demonstrated a slower rate of fatigue and less muscle fatigue at task failure than males. No gender difference was found in time to task failure or the recovery of inspiratory muscle strength. CONCLUSION: The results provide some evidence that the fatigability of the inspiratory muscles is different between genders. Females demonstrated a slower rate of fatigue during resistive breathing than males, a finding independent of muscle strength.

Adult↗
PubMed1996

Gender differences in health: evidence from the Czech Republic.

Gender differences in health have been linked to gender stratification in the United States. Women's relation to production, paid and unpaid work, and their experience of this gender inequality disadvantage their self-rated health compared to men. Men's consumption or health lifestyles disfavors their comparative health. This formulation is tested in the Czech Republic with a sample of matched wives and husbands (N = 577 households). This extends previous research in the United States on gender differences in health in two ways: into post-communist Europe and by comparing paired wives and husbands. Respondents completed questionnaires in 1994 on their health and well-being, jobs and finances, non-economic life events, marriage, psychological states, opinions about the changes in the Czech Republic, and socioeconomic background. Wives and husbands filled out separate questionnaires. The relation to production (both the objective relation and its subjective experience) did not impair wives' self-reported health any more than that of their husbands, and husbands' consumption or health lifestyles did not put them at a health disadvantage. Interpretations of these findings rest on both the extension of the study into post-communist Europe and by comparing matched wives and husbands.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Infant gender differences regarding acute established pain.

The purpose of this study was to ascertain if any gender differences existed in the behaviors of infants experiencing different levels of acute established pain and different levels of arousal within each level of pain. To do this, the behaviors of 152 two-week- to 12-month-old infants were videotaped and compared. Levels of pain were assessed by a panel of expert pediatric nurses. Results indicated that female 2-week- to 6-month-old infants performed more generally broadcast crying than did males and that the cries of female 7- to 12-month-old infants were of higher pitch than those of males. There was no gender difference in any facial or other bodily behavior. One cannot interpolate from these results that there are any gender differences in pain thresholds, only that there seem to be gender differences in behavioral responses to acute established pain.

Acute Disease↗
PubMed2003

Does financial self-efficacy explain gender differences in retirement saving strategies?

Research indicates that women remain less financially prepared for retirement than are men. Little research has examined the gender difference in use of retirement plans. The present research assessed the gender difference in use of employer-sponsored and private retirement plans, and sought to account for this difference. Social status and human capital factors, occupation and industry of employment, and sense of financial self-efficacy were expected to account for gender differences. Findings indicated gender has no relationship with use of private retirement plans. However, females were found to be less likely to use an employer-sponsored plan, and this was largely accounted for by gender differences in occupation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Gender differences in the cortical electrophysiological processing of visual emotional stimuli.

The processing of visual emotional stimuli has been investigated previously; however, gender differences in the processing of emotional stimuli remain to be clarified. The aim of the current study was to use steady-state probe topography (SSPT) to examine steady-state visually evoked potentials (SSVEPs) during the processing of pleasant and unpleasant images relative to neutral images, and to determine whether this processing differs between males and females. Thirty participants (15 males and 15 females) viewed 75 images low on the arousal dimension (categorised as pleasant, neutral or unpleasant) selected from the International Affective Picture System (IAPS), whilst a 13-Hz sinusoidal white visual flicker was superimposed over the visual field and brain electrical activity was recorded from 64 electrode sites. Results suggest that pleasant and unpleasant images relative to neutral images are associated with reductions in frontal latency and occipital amplitude. In addition, electrophysiological gender differences were observed despite there being no differences found between males and females on subjective mood or behavioural ratings of presented images (valence and arousal dimensions). The main gender difference reported in the current study related to the processing of unpleasant images (relative to neutral images) which is associated with widespread frontal latency reductions (predominantly right sided) in females but not in males. Our results suggest that gender differences do exist in the processing of visual emotional stimuli, and illustrate the importance of taking these differences into account during investigations of emotional processing. Finally, these gender differences may have implications for the pathophysiology of mood disorders such as depression.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Overworked and underpaid: on the nature of gender differences in personal entitlement.

This research investigated gender differences in feelings of personal entitlement with respect to monetary payment for work performed. Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that women's internal standards of fair pay for their work are lower than men's and to examine possible causes of this difference. In Experiment 1, men and women were asked to pay themselves in a private situation what they thought was fair pay for a fixed amount of work. Social comparison information was varied. As predicted, women paid themselves less money than men in the absence, but not the presence, of social comparison information. In Experiment 2, men and women were asked to do as much work as they thought was fair for a fixed, prepaid, amount of money. Subjects believed that their work was either monitored or unmonitored. Women worked significantly longer, did more work, and did more correct work than men in both public and private work settings. Furthermore, women, but not men, worked longer when they believed their work was monitored than when they believed it was unmonitored. Possible explanations for these gender differences are discussed.

Employment↗
PubMed2005

Rethinking gender differences in health: why we need to integrate social and biological perspectives.

The complexity of gender differences in health (i.e., men's lower life expectancy and women's greater morbidity) extends beyond notions of either social or biological disadvantage. Gaps remain in understanding the antecedents of such differences and the issues this paradox raises regarding the connections between social and biological processes. Our goals in this analytic essay are to make the case that gender differences in health matter and that understanding these differences requires an explanation of why rational people are not effective in making health a priority in their everyday lives. We describe some salient gender health differences in cardiovascular disease, immune function and disorders, and depression and indicate why neither social nor biological perspectives alone are sufficient to account for them. We consider the limitations of current models of socioeconomic and racial/ethnic health disparities to explain the puzzling gender differences in health. Finally, we discuss constrained choice, a key issue that is missing in the current understanding of these gender differences, and call on the social science community to work with biomedical researchers on the interdisciplinary work required to address the paradoxical differences in men's and women's health.

Cardiovascular Diseases↗
PubMed2003

Do gender differences exist in the ventilatory response to progressive exercise in males and females of average fitness?

Gender differences in lung volumes and flow rates, and in respiratory control have been documented previously. How these gender differences affect exercise responses in normal subjects is less clear, particularly as many studies involved highly fit subjects. This study aimed to investigate potential gender differences occurring during progressive exercise in healthy males and females of average fitness. Fourteen males and ten females of mean (SD) age 23 (0.35) years completed a progressive exercise test to exhaustion on a cycle ergometer, with a ramp increase of 15 W min(-1) (female) or 20 W min(-1) (male). All females were studied during the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle. Cardiorespiratory variables were measured, breath by breath, and values were compared at rest, at 40 W, at physiologically equivalent workloads below, at and above the gas exchange threshold and at peak oxygen uptake (VO(2peak)). Mean VO(2peak) (SEM) was 32.4 (2.01) ml kg(-1) min(-1) for the females and 41.9 (1.80) ml kg(-1) min(-1) for the males. Females had a significantly lower end-tidal partial CO(2) pressure at rest and throughout exercise. Increases in exercise minute ventilation were achieved by a significantly greater tidal volume in males, whereas females adopted a significantly greater breathing frequency. Ratings of respiratory discomfort were significantly greater in the male group at physiologically equivalent workloads compared to the female group. This study shows gender differences exist in the ventilatory and sensory response to progressive exercise in untrained subjects. Further work is required to ascertain if these effects are altered during the luteal phase of the menstrual cycle.

Adolescent↗