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At least 217 records · Page 12Linked to original sources
PubMed2003

Investigation of antihypertensive mechanism of garlic in 2K1C hypertensive rat.

This study sought to examine the antihypertensive mechanism of garlic in two-kidney-one-clip (2K1C) hypertensive rat. In this study, the effect of garlic on serum and tissue including: aorta, heart, kidney, lung as well as circulatory (serum) ACE activity in 2K1C rats were examined. Four groups of rats were selected: control "CTL", sham-operated "SHAM", hypertensive "H" and garlic-treated hypertensive "GT" group. Hypertension was induced by surgery. Four weeks post-clipping, single daily dose of 50mg of aqueous extract of garlic was given orally to "GT" rats for 4 weeks. Blood pressure was measured by tail-cuff method. ACE activity was determined using HPLC. The systolic blood pressure (SBP) was significantly increased in "H" compared to "CTL" group. In "GT" group, blood pressure was significantly decreased compared to "H" group. The ACE activity in all tissues of "H" group was significantly increased compared to controls which was significantly decreased in garlic-treated compared to non-treated hypertensive rats. These results indicated a negative correlation between consumption of garlic, blood pressure and ACE activity in serum and different tissues in 2K1C rats, suggesting that garlic has a significant blood pressure lowering effect, which could partly be mediated by reduction in ACE activity.

Animals↗
PubMed2000

Garlic powder, effect on plasma lipids, postprandial lipemia, low-density lipoprotein particle size, high-density lipoprotein subclass distribution and lipoprotein(a).

OBJECTIVES: To test the hypothesis that a garlic supplement alters plasma lipoproteins, postprandial lipemia, low-density lipoprotein (LDL) size and high-density lipoprotein (HDL) subclass distribution differently in 50 moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects classified as LDL subclass pattern A or B. BACKGROUND: Garlic has been variably reported to reduce or not affect plasma cholesterol values. Low-density lipoprotein pattern B is a common inherited disorder of lipoprotein metabolism that has been shown to have a significantly greater response to several lipid lowering treatments including low fat diet when compared with LDL pattern A individuals. METHODS: A double blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial in an outpatient lipid research clinic was performed and included fifty moderately hypercholesterolemic subjects (mean LDL cholesterol = 166 +/- 22 mg/dl) classified as LDL subclass pattern A (predominantly large LDL, n = 22) or B (predominantly small LDL, n = 28). Following a two-month stabilization period, subjects were randomly assigned to a placebo or 300 mg three times a day of a standardized garlic tablet for three months. RESULTS: For all subjects, LDL pattern A and B subjects combined, garlic treatment for three months resulted in no significant change in total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, HDL cholesterol, HDL subclass distribution, postprandial triglycerides, apolipoprotein B, lipoprotein (a) (Lp[a]), LDL peak particle diameter or LDL subclass distribution. There was no significant difference in response for the same parameters among subjects classified as LDL pattern A or B with the exception of significantly greater (p = 0.01) reduction in mean peak particle diameter in pattern A subjects treated with either garlic or placebo. There was no significant change in LDL subclass distribution. CONCLUSIONS: This investigation confirms that garlic therapy has no effect on major plasma lipoproteins and further, that it has no impact on HDL subclasses, Lp(a), apolipoprotein B, postprandial triglycerides or LDL subclass distribution. Garlic may have a greater effect on LDL particle diameter in LDL pattern A compared with pattern B subjects. This difference was not reflected in other plasma lipid measurements.

Biomarkers↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effects of garlic on atherosclerosis.

This review discusses the use of garlic and garlic preparations as agents for prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis and atherosclerosis-related diseases. Garlic indirectly effects atherosclerosis by reduction of hyperlipidemia, hypertension, and probably diabetes mellitus and prevents thrombus formation. In addition, in animal models, garlic causes direct antiatherogenic (preventive) and antiatherosclerotic (causing regression) effects at the level of artery wall. Garlic's direct effect on atherosclerosis may be explained by its capacity to reduce lipid content in arterial cells and to prevent intracellular lipid accumulation. This effect, in turn, is accompanied by other atherosclerotic manifestations, i.e., stimulation of cell proliferation and extracellular matrix synthesis. Clinical trials are currently being carried out to reveal the possible effect of garlic therapy on human atherosclerosis. Positive results of these trials may open a new era in the use of garlic for prevention and treatment of many atherosclerosis-related diseases.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Mechanism of garlic (Allium sativum) induced reduction of hypertension in 2K-1C rats: a possible mediation of Na/H exchanger isoform-1.

Garlic causes reduction in blood pressure (BP), however the role of Na/H exchanger (NHE) which mediates hypertension and related tissue-damage is poorly understood. In this study the effect of an established dose of raw garlic extract was investigated on the expression of NHE-1 and -3 and sodium pump activity in a 2K-1C model of hypertension in rats. 2K-1C animals showed high BP, increased serum concentration of PGE2 and TxB2, hypertrophy of the unclipped kidneys, but not in the clipped kidneys In addition, NHE-1 and NHE-3 isoforms were increased in both the 2K-1C kidneys, whereas alpha-actin was increased in the clipped but not in unclipped kidneys. Sodium pump activity was decreased in the clipped kidneys, but remained unchanged in the unclipped kidneys. Garlic treatment reduced the induction of NHE-1 only in the unclipped 2K-1C kidneys, whereas garlic treatment increased the sodium pump activity in both the 2K-1C kidneys. These findings demonstrate that the antihypertensive action of garlic is associated with a reversal of NHE-1 induction in the unclipped kidneys. Induction of NHE isoforms together with a reduced sodium pump activity might cause necrosis in the 2K-1C clipped kidneys due to cellular retention of Na+. On the other hand, activation of sodium pump by garlic extract in the kidneys should reduce intracellular Na+ concentration and normalize BP. These findings signify the use of garlic in the treatment of hypertension.

Animals↗
PubMed1998

Effect of garlic (Allium sativum) on blood lipids, blood sugar, fibrinogen and fibrinolytic activity in patients with coronary artery disease.

Thirty patients with coronary artery disease (CAD) were administered garlic (study group) while another 30 patients received the placebo (control group). Various risk parameters were determined at 1.5 and 3 months of garlic administration. Garlic, administered in a daily dose of 2 x 2 capsules (each capsule containing ethyl acetate extract from 1 g peeled and crushed raw garlic), reduced significantly total serum cholesterol and triglycerides, and increased significantly HDL-cholesterol and fibrinolytic activity. There was no effect on the fibrinogen and glucose levels. In vitro effects of the garlic oil on platelet aggregation (PAg) and eicosanoid metabolism were examined; it inhibited PAg induced by several platelet agonists, and also platelet thromboxane formation. Two important paraffinic polysulphides - diallyl disulphide (DADS) and diallyl trisulphide (DATS) - derived from garlic and are usual constituents of garlic oil, showed antiplatelet activity, and also inhibited platelet thromboxane formation. In this respect DATS was more potent than DADS. The nature of inhibition of PAg by DATS was found to be reversible.

Allyl Compounds↗
PubMed2005

Assessment of initial stages of Maillard reaction in dehydrated onion and garlic samples.

The initial steps of the Maillard reaction in freshly laboratory-freeze-dried and commercial dehydrated onion and garlic samples have been assessed by quantitative determination of 2-furoylmethylamino acids, obtained after acid hydrolysis of the corresponding Amadori compound. In freshly prepared samples, hardly any presence of 2-furoylmethylamino acids was detected, whereas in commercial samples, onion contained much more important levels of 2-furoylmethylamino acids as compared to garlic species. 2-Furoylmethyl-gamma-aminobutyric acid (1), 2-furoylmethyl-lysine (furosine; 2), and 2-furoylmethylarginine (3) were identified in all commercial dehydrated onion samples, with compound 3 being the most abundant. All garlic samples presented slightly higher levels of 2 than 3 with no presence of 1. The observed differences between onion and garlic commercial samples may be due to their very different content of reducing sugars. Moreover, some variations found in 2-furoylmethyl derivatives within both onion and garlic species could be also attributed to different processing and storage conditions during the manufacture of these products. The findings of this study show the first evidence of important levels of Amadori compounds in dehydrated garlic and onion samples, as well as the usefulness of 2-furoylmethyl derivatives as quality indicators for the early detection of the Maillard reaction in onion and garlic products.

Aminobutyrates↗
PubMed2006

Changes in organosulfur compounds in garlic cloves during storage.

We determined the changes in the contents of three gamma-glutamyl peptides and four sulfoxides in garlic cloves during storage at -3, 4, and 23 degrees C for 150 days using a validated high-performance liquid chromatography method that we reported recently. When garlic was stored at 4 degrees C for 150 days, marked conversion of the gamma-glutamyl peptides, gamma-L-glutamyl-S-allyl-L-cysteine and gamma-L-glutamyl-S-(trans-1-propenyl)-L-cysteine (GSPC), to sulfoxides, alliin and isoalliin, was observed. Interestingly, however, when garlic was stored at 23 degrees C, a decrease in GSPC and a marked increase in cycloalliin, rather than isoalliin, occurred. To elucidate in detail the mechanism involved, the conversion of isoalliin to cycloalliin in both buffer solutions (pH 4.6, 5.5, and 6.5) and garlic cloves at 25 and 35 degrees C was examined. Decreases in the concentration of isoalliin in both the solutions and the garlic cloves during storage followed first-order kinetics and coincided with the conversion of cycloalliin. Our data indicated that isoalliin produced enzymatically from GSPC is chemically converted to cycloalliin and that the cycloalliin content of garlic cloves increases during storage at higher temperature. These data may be useful for controlling the quality and biological activities of garlic and its preparations.

Chromatography, High Pressure Liquid↗
PubMed2002

Altered cytokeratin expression during chemoprevention of experimental hamster buccal pouch carcinogenesis by garlic.

BACKGROUND: Cytokeratins (also known as keratins (K)) are members of the family of intermediate filaments and form major components of the mammalian epithelial cell cytoskeleton. Cytokeratins have emerged as reliable cellular markers of oral cancer development and chemoprevention because of their abundance, stability and high antigenicity. METHODS: We investigated the effect of aqueous garlic extract on cytokeratin expression during 7,12-dimethylbenz[a]anthracene (DMBA)-induced hamster buccal pouch (HBP) carcinogenesis. Hamsters were divided into four groups of six animals. Animals in group 1 were painted with a 0.5% solution of DMBA in liquid paraffin, on the right buccal pouches, three times a week for 14 weeks. Group 2 animals were painted with DMBA as in group 1 and also received 250 mg/kg body weight aqueous garlic extract orally on alternate days to the DMBA application. Group 3 animals received garlic extract only, as in group 2. Group 4 animals received neither DMBA nor garlic extract and served as the control. The hamsters were killed after an experimental period of 14 weeks. RESULTS: Cytokeratin expression was studied using human monoclonal antibodies AE1 and AE3, which react with type I and II keratins. In DMBA-induced squamous cell carcinomas, decreased expression of high molecular weight keratins was observed. Administration of garlic extract to animals painted with DMBA suppressed HBP carcinomas and restored normal cytokeratin expression. CONCLUSION: The results of the present study suggest that inhibition of HBP carcinogenesis by garlic may be due to its regulatory effects on differentiation, tumour invasiveness, migratory and metastatic potential. We suggest that one of the mechanisms of tumour inhibition by garlic is an influence on cellular differentiation.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

Garlic arrests MDA-MB-435 cancer cells in mitosis, phosphorylates the proapoptotic BH3-only protein BimEL and induces apoptosis.

Components of garlic (Allium sativum) can cause disruption of microtubules, cell cycle arrest, and apoptosis in cancer cells. We show here that a water-soluble extract of garlic arrested MDA-MB-435 cancer cells in mitosis and caused apoptosis. The proapoptotic BH3-only, bcl-2 family protein BimEL, which in healthy cells can be tightly sequestered to the microtubule-associated dynein motor complex, was modified after garlic treatment. The main effect of garlic on BimEL was a considerable increase in a phosphorylated form of the protein. This phosphorylation(s), probably partly dependent on c-jun N-terminal kinase activity, promoted mitochondrial localisation of BimEL. Furthermore, inhibition of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 increased the amount of another form of BimEL present in the mitochondrial cellular fraction. Treatment of cells with the garlic compound diallyl disulphide had similar effects on BimEL. The results indicate that the apoptotic effect of garlic and a combination of garlic and the inhibitor of extracellular signal-regulated kinases 1/2 in MDA-MB-435 cells partly is due to modifications that are necessary for translocation of the proapoptotic protein BimEL to mitochondria where it executes its proapoptotic function.

Apoptosis↗
PubMed2003

Effect of short-term administration of garlic supplements on single-dose ritonavir pharmacokinetics in healthy volunteers.

AIMS: To evaluate the effect of acute dosing of garlic supplements on the single-dose pharmacokinetics of ritonavir. METHODS: Ten healthy volunteers (five male, five female) were equally randomized in a crossover design to receive 400 mg of a single dose of ritonavir within 10 min after eating breakfast either alone or with 10 mg of Natural Source Odourless Garlic. They received a total of eight doses of garlic extract (2 x 5 mg capsules) taken twice daily for 4 days. Ritonavir and the seventh garlic dose were administered simultaneously. RESULTS: Coadministration of garlic nonsignificantly decreased area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC(0, infinity )) by -17% (90% confidence interval (CI), -31% to 0%; range -46% to 68%) and peak plasma concentration of ritonavir by -1% (90% CI, -25% to 31%; range -51% to 136%). CONCLUSIONS: Acute dosing of the garlic capsules over 4 days did not significantly alter the single-dose pharmacokinetics of ritonavir in healthy volunteers. Given the complex effects of both ritonavir and garlic on drug metabolism, the results of our study should not be extrapolated to steady-state conditions, where the possibility of an interaction still needs to be evaluated.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed1994

Dietary garlic suppresses DNA adducts caused by N-nitroso compounds.

The present studies examined the impact of a processed garlic powder on the in vivo occurrence of DNA adducts caused by N-nitroso compounds (NOC) in rats. Addition of 2% garlic powder to diets containing aminopyrine and sodium nitrite (each at 600 mg/kg) reduced the occurrence of both 7-N-methyldeoxyguanosine (7-N-mG) and 6-O-methyldeoxyguanosine (6-O-mG) adducts to rat liver DNA by approximately 55%; and over 80% when 4% garlic was provided. Dietary supplementation with garlic powder (2 and 4%) also reduced the occurrence of 7-N-mG and 6-O-mG adducts by approximately 40 and 60% respectively, in rats intubated with N-nitrosodimethylamine (150 mg/kg body wt). The quantity of 7-N-mG and 6-O-mG adducts in mammary tissue of rats given intravenous N-methyl-N-nitrosourea (50 mg/kg body wt) was reduced over 50% in rats fed 2% garlic compared to controls. The depression in the occurrence of these adducts was approximately 70% when dietary garlic was increased to 4%. These experiments suggest the reduction in DNA adducts caused by processed garlic powder likely reflects a depression in the formation of NOC from precursors and changes in the bioactivation and/or denitrosation of NOC.

Animals↗
PubMed1999

Heating garlic inhibits its ability to suppress 7, 12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene-induced DNA adduct formation in rat mammary tissue.

The present studies compared the impact of heating, either by microwave or convection oven, on the ability of garlic to reduce the in vivo bioactivation of 7,12-dimethylbenz(a)anthracene (DMBA) in 55-d-old female Sprague-Dawley rats. In study 1, rats were fed a semipurified casein-based diet and treated by gastric gavage thrice weekly for 2-wk with crushed garlic (0.7 g in 2 mL corn oil) or the carrier prior to DMBA treatment (50 mg/kg body weight). Providing crushed garlic reduced by 64% (P < 0.05) the quantity DMBA-induced DNA adducts present in mammary epithelial cells compared to controls. In study 2, microwave treatment for 60 s, but not 30 s, decreased (P < 0.05) the protection provided by garlic against DMBA-induced adduct formation. In study 3, allowing crushed garlic to stand for 10 min prior to microwave heating for 60 s significantly (P < 0.05) restored its anticarcinogenic activity. Microwave heating of garlic for 30 s resulted in a 90% loss of alliinase activity. Heating in a convection oven (study 4) also completely blocked the ability of uncrushed garlic to retard DMBA bioactivation. Study 5 revealed that providing either 0.105 micromol diallyl disulfide or S-allyl cysteine by gastric gavage thrice weekly for 2 wk was effective in retarding DMBA bioactivation but isomolar alliin was not. These studies provide evidence that alliinase may be important for the formation of allyl sulfur compounds that contribute to a depression in DMBA metabolism and bioactivation.

9,10-Dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene↗
PubMed2001

The influence of heating on the anticancer properties of garlic.

Allyl sulfur compounds are the major active constituents found in crushed garlic. Research has revealed that garlic and its lipid- or water-soluble components have many pharmacologic properties; however, studies also demonstrate that heating has a negative influence on these beneficial effects. We recently conducted several studies to investigate the influence of microwave or oven heating on the anticarcinogenesis property of garlic. Our studies showed that as little as 60 s of microwave heating or 45 min of oven heating can block garlic's ability to inhibit in vivo binding of mammary carcinogen [7,12-dimethylbenzene(a)anthracene (DMBA)] metabolites to rat mammary epithelial cell DNA. Allowing crushed garlic to "stand" for 10 min before microwave heating for 60 s prevented the total loss of anticarcinogenic activity. Our studies demonstrated that this blocking of the ability of garlic was consistent with inactivation of alliinase. These studies suggest that heating destroyed garlic's active allyl sulfur compound formation, which may relate to its anticancer properties.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Historical perspective on garlic and cardiovascular disease.

Cardiovascular disease is a complex and multifactorial disease characterized by such factors as high cholesterol, hypertension, reduced fibrinolysis, increase in blood-clotting time and increased platelet aggregation. Dietary therapy is the first step in the treatment of hyperlipidemia; garlic has been used medicinally for centuries and is still included in the traditional medicine of many cultures. Historically, there has been great interest in the role of garlic in reducing cardiovascular risk factors. Evidence from numerous studies points to the fact that garlic can bring about the normalization of plasma lipids, enhancement of fibrinolytic activity, inhibition of platelet aggregation and reduction of blood pressure and glucose. However, some contradictory results have also emerged as a result of methodological shortcomings, the use of different formulations/preparations of garlic and different time scales of the studies. Accordingly, further clinical studies are required in which standardized formulations of garlic with known compositions can be used. Such formulations (e.g., Aged Garlic Extract) are now available and are being investigated. Evidence obtained from these studies indicates that garlic has potential in the prevention and control of cardiovascular disorders and is beneficial when taken as a dietary supplement.

Arteriosclerosis↗
PubMed2001

Garlic supplementation increases testicular testosterone and decreases plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet.

The effects of garlic supplementation on protein metabolism were investigated by measuring testis testosterone and plasma corticosterone in rats fed diets with different protein levels. In Experiment 1, rats were fed experimental diets with different protein levels (40, 25 or 10 g/100 g casein) with or without 0.8 g/100 g garlic powder. After 28 d of feeding, testosterone contents in the testis were significantly higher and plasma corticosterone concentrations were significantly lower in rats fed 40 and 25% casein diets with garlic powder than in those fed the same diets without garlic powder. Urinary excretion of 17-ketosteroid (an index of testosterone), nitrogen balance and hepatic arginase activity were significantly higher in rats fed the 40% casein diet with garlic powder than in the 40% casein controls. In Experiment 2, the effect of diallyldisulfide (a major volatile sulfur-containing compound in garlic) on the secretion of luteinizing hormone (LH) from the pituitary gland, which regulates testosterone production in the testis, was investigated in anesthetized rats. Plasma LH concentration increased dose dependently after administration of diallyldisulfide (P < 0.01, r = 0.558). These results suggest that dietary supplementation with 0.8 g/100 g garlic alters hormones associated with protein anabolism by increasing testicular testosterone and decreasing plasma corticosterone in rats fed a high protein diet.

17-Ketosteroids↗
PubMed2002

Garlic inhibits microsomal triglyceride transfer protein gene expression in human liver and intestinal cell lines and in rat intestine.

Epidemiologic studies have suggested that fresh garlic has lipid-lowering activity. Because the microsomal triglyceride transfer protein (MTP) plays a pivotal role in the assembly and secretion of apolipoprotein B (apoB)-containing lipoproteins, we evaluated the effect of garlic on the expression of the MTP gene in vitro in cell lines and in vivo in rats. Fresh garlic extract (FGE) reduced MTP mRNA levels in both the human hepatoma HepG2 and intestinal carcinoma Caco-2 cells in dose-dependent fashion; significant reductions were detected with 3 g/L FGE. Maximal 72 and 59% reductions, respectively, were observed with 6 g/L FGE. To evaluate the in vivo effect of garlic on MTP gene expression, rats were given a single oral dose of fresh garlic homogenate (FGH), with hepatic and intestinal MTP mRNA measured 3 h after dosing. Rats fed FGH had significantly (46% of the control) lower intestinal MTP mRNA levels compared with the control rats, whereas hepatic MTP mRNA levels were not affected. These results suggest a new mechanism for the hypolipidemic effect of fresh garlic. Long-term dietary supplementation of fresh garlic may exert a lipid-lowering effect partly through reducing intestinal MTP gene expression, thus suppressing the assembly and secretion of chylomicrons from intestine to the blood circulation.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Garlic (Allium sativum L.) modulates cytokine expression in lipopolysaccharide-activated human blood thereby inhibiting NF-kappaB activity.

Garlic is proposed to have immunomodulatory and anti-inflammatory properties. This paper shows that garlic powder extracts (GPE) and single garlic metabolites modulate lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced cytokine levels in human whole blood. GPE-altered cytokine levels in human blood sample supernatants reduced nuclear factor (NF)-kappaB activity in human cells exposed to these samples. Pretreatment with GPE (100 mg/L) reduced LPS-induced production of proinflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-1beta from 15.7 +/- 5.1 to 6.2 +/- 1.2 micro g/L and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha from 8.8 +/- 2.4 to 3.9 +/- 0.8 micro g/L, respectively, whereas the expression of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10 was unchanged. The garlic metabolite diallydisulfide (1-100 micro mol/L) also significantly reduced IL-1beta and TNF-alpha. Interestingly, exposure of human embryonic kidney cell line (HEK293) cells to GPE-treated blood sample supernatants (10 or 100 mg/L) reduced NF-kappaB activity compared with cells exposed to untreated blood supernatants as measured by a NF-kappaB-driven luciferase reporter gene assay. Blood samples treated with extract obtained from unfertilized garlic (100 mg/L) reduced NF-kappaB activity by 25%, whereas blood samples treated with sulfur-fertilized garlic extracts (100 mg/L) lowered NF-kappaB activity by 41%. In summary, garlic may indeed promote an anti-inflammatory environment by cytokine modulation in human blood that leads to an overall inhibition of NF-kappaB activity in the surrounding tissue.

Cell Line↗
PubMed2006

Tetrahydro-beta-carboline derivatives in aged garlic extract show antioxidant properties.

This study used the hydroden peroxide scavenging assay to investigate antioxidant chemical constituents derived and separated from aged garlic extract, a unique garlic extract produced by soaking sliced garlic in an aqueous ethanol solution for >10 mo. Four types of 1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline derivatives (THbetaCs); 1-methyl-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-3-carboxylic acid, and 1-methyl-1, 2, 3, 4-tetrahydro-beta-carboline-1, 3-dicarboxylic acid (MTCdiC), from both diastereoisomers, were isolated and identified by use of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. All these compounds indicate strong hydrogen peroxide scavenging activities and inhibit 2, 2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) hydrochloride-induced lipid peroxidation. Particularly, (1S, 3S)-MTCdiC had the most potent hydrogen peroxide scavenging activity, more than ascorbic acid. The (1R, 3S)- and (1S, 3S)-MTCdiC at 50-100 micromol/L and 10-100 micromol/L inhibited LPS-induced nitrite production. Interestingly, THbetaCs were not detected in raw garlic and other processed garlic preparations, but they were generated and increased during the natural aging garlic extraction process. These data suggest that THbetaCs, which are formed during the natural aging process, are potent antioxidants in aged garlic extract and thus may be useful for the prevention of diseases associated with oxidative damage.

Aging↗