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PubMed2005

Friendship, cliquishness, and the emergence of cooperation.

The evolution of cooperation is a central problem in biology and the social sciences. While theoretical work using the iterated prisoner's dilemma (IPD) has shown that cooperation among non-kin can be sustained among reciprocal strategies (i.e. tit-for-tat), these results are sensitive to errors in strategy execution, cyclical invasions by free riders, and the specific ecology of strategies. Moreover, the IPD assumes that a strategy's probability of playing the PD game with other individuals is independent of the decisions made by others. Here, we remove the assumption of independent pairing by studying a more plausible cooperative dilemma in which players can preferentially interact with a limited set of known partners and also deploy longer-term accounting strategies that can counteract the effects of random errors. We show that cooperative strategies readily emerge and persist in a range of noisy environments, with successful cooperative strategies (henceforth, cliquers) maintaining medium-term memories for partners and low thresholds for acceptable cooperation (i.e. forgiveness). The success of these strategies relies on their cliquishness-a propensity to defect with strangers if they already have an adequate number of partners. Notably, this combination of medium-term accounting, forgiveness, and cliquishness fits with empirical studies of friendship and other long-term relationships among humans.

Altruism↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Measuring relationship strength in roommates with MR/DD: the development of the Roommate Friendship Scale (RFS).

Most people with mental retardation who live in government-funded housing have roommates. Roommate relationships are significant determinants of quality of life, but current methods of roommate selection generally do not prioritize roommate compatibility. One problem is that inadequate research has been conducted on roommate relationships. In order to improve the process of roommate selection, research is needed. The purpose of this investigation was to identify an important and neglected study topic and to facilitate new research by developing a scale to measure the strength of roommate relationships. The Roommate Friendship Scale (RFS) has a stable internal structure, is reliable, and has demonstrated the ability to differentiate between compatible and incompatible roommates. The scale items are included in this report.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

Social problems associated with ADHD vs. ODD in children referred for friendship problems.

Four groups were composed of children referred for friendship problems (age range: 6 to 12 years old). One group was diagnosed with both Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) and Oppositional-Defiant Disorder (ODD), one group with ADHD only, one group with ODD only and one group with neither disorder. Parents and teachers were given questionnaires to rate the social behavior of each child. The groups differed significantly on one parent scale (Self-control) and one teacher scale (Aggression). Inspection of the items composing these scales suggested that some items measured social relationships with adults while other items measured peer relationships. Subsequent factor analysis separated peer and adult components. Analysis of subscales derived from factor analysis revealed the diagnosis of ADHD was associated with increases in classroom disruption and decreased resistance to provocation by peers, while the diagnosis of ODD was associated with increased in hostility towards peers, decreased resistance to provocation by peers and decreased respect for adults. Limitations of the study were: domains of social functioning assessed, sample size and diversity, and the absence of a comparison group with adequate peer relationships. Social skills programs should target social deficits associated with ODD and ADHD. The scales refined in the present study offer a convenient means of assessing peer dysfunction from the points of view of parents and teachers.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2002

Relational and physical victimization within friendships: nobody told me there'd be friends like these.

In past research, relational and physical forms of peer victimization have been identified that have been shown to be significantly associated with social-psychological maladjustment. These forms of victimization, although studied primarily within the group peer context, also occur within dyadic relationships such as friendships. Gender differences in friend victimization and the association between friend victimization and children's social-psychological adjustment were examined. Results showed that boys were more physically victimized by their friends than were girls. Girls were more relationally than physically victimized by their friends. Friend victimization was related to adjustment difficulties for both boys and girls; however, friend physical victimization was particularly related to boys whereas friend relational victimization was particularly related to girls. The implications of these findings for future research and intervention with victimized children are discussed.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2000

The role of proactive and reactive aggression in the formation and development of boys' friendships.

This study tested the hypothesis that friends are more similar in proactive aggression than in reactive aggression. Interpersonal processes that may account for this similarity (i.e., selection and mutual influence) were also examined. In the fall and spring of the school year, the friendships of 185 4th-, 5th-, and 6th-grade boys were identified. Proactive and reactive aggressive behavior were assessed with a teacher-rating instrument for each boy. The results support the general hypothesis and suggest that proactively aggressive boys tend to select proactively aggressive peers as friends; however, mutual influence between stable friends does not appear to account for similarity. These findings are discussed within the framework of G. R. Patterson, J. B. Reid, and T. J. Dishion's (1992) theory of antisocial behavior.

Aggression↗
PubMed1997

The meaning of social interactions in the transition from acquaintanceship to friendship.

The transition from acquaintanceship (nonunit) to friendship (unit) was conceptualized in terms of a preunit relationship. The authors theorized that in transitional relationships, discrete interactions are imbued with surplus meaning. Using a mental simulation procedure in 3 studies, participants randomly assigned to focus their attention on an exemplar from their social worlds representing unit, preunit, or nonunit same-sex relationships responded to social exchange scenarios. Preunits intended to act like a friend and not an acquaintance, yet they experienced more discomfort following a communal script than those in a unit relation. Content analyses of open-ended responses revealed that preunits were more likely than units or nonunits to see a nice gesture by the other person as having some social meaning. Failure to reciprocate a favor by either party was deemed more important to preunit than unit or nonunit relations. In Study 4, in which actual interaction records were used, the quality of individual discrete interactions was more highly correlated with momentary, on-line perceptions of relationship closeness for preunit interactions than unit or nonunit interactions.

Affect↗
PubMed2006

Intercommunity relocation and adolescent friendships: who struggles and why?

This study examined how relocation to a new community affects intimacy and companionship in close friendships by comparing experiences of early adolescents who began their 7th or 8th grade school year in a new community (111 boys, 96 girls) with those of residentially stable agemates (30 boys, 38 girls). Drawing from a developmental- contextual, multisystem conceptual framework and using a person-centered analytic approach, the study provides strong evidence that most adolescents experience a relatively brief period of diminished access to companionship and intimacy with close friends following relocation. The extent of diminution may be greater for adolescents with social anxiety or behavioral concerns. Findings have implications for families who are facing a move and for clinicians working with recently relocated adolescents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Raising grandchildren from crack-cocaine households: effects on family and friendship ties of African-American women.

Changes in family and friendship networks of 71 African-American grandmothers raising grandchildren as a consequence of the crack-cocaine epidemic are examined. Despite continued strong social ties, many of the women reported decreased contact with family and friends other than confidantes and a decline in marital satisfaction. Implications of the findings for research, policy, and practice are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Negotiating deaf-hearing friendships: coping strategies of deaf boys and girls in mainstream schools.

BACKGROUND: Increasingly, deaf students are educated in mainstream school environments. This poses a question of how deaf children negotiate the demands of forming friendships with their hearing peers. The present study was designed to examine coping strategies of 35 deaf children attending full or partial mainstream school settings. METHOD: Using a qualitative analysis design, a range of coping strategies used by the children was described based on parents' reports. The relative success of these coping strategies in establishing relationships with hearing peers was assessed by examining strategies that increased the social success of deaf girls and boys. RESULTS: The results showed differences by gender in the effectiveness of coping strategies used by the participants. Deaf girls who were confident and frequently asked for clarifications or who were comfortable playing alone tended to achieve good relationships with hearing peers. In contrast, deaf boys' relationships with hearing peers benefited mostly from the boys' ability to perform well in sports. CONCLUSIONS: These findings are discussed in light of existing research on coping and current debates on the benefits of mainstreaming for deaf children.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed1979

The relationship between friendship and altruism in preadolescent girls.

The present study was designed from a Sullivanian theoretical perspective to explore the nature of friendship patterns during preadolescence. Specifically, an attempt was made to replicate with females a previous finding that preadolescent boys involved in a chum relationship exhibited significantly greater levels of altruistic behavior than those without a chum.

Altruism↗
PubMed1993

The role of cognitive appraisal and friendship provisions in adolescents' affect and motivation toward activity in physical education.

This study investigated the mediational role of affect in the influence of perceived success, causal attributions, and friendship provisions on choice and future expectancies for success and enjoyment, using a multi-sample structural equation modeling approach. Subjects were 422 seventh- and eighth-grade students participating in physical education classes. Higher levels of perceived success, personally controllable attributions, companionship, and esteem support were found to positively influence levels of affect experienced, which in turn enhanced future expectancies for success and enjoyment in physical education and choices to participate in physical activity outside of school. Furthermore, participation experience outside of school influenced adolescents' perceptions within the physical education setting and their consequent affect and motivation.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Cultural connection and transformation: substance abuse treatment at Friendship House.

This research investigates the transformational experiences of Native Americans during the course of their retraditionalization and treatment for drug and alcohol dependence. Twelve graduates of the residential treatment program at Friendship House in San Francisco were interviewed about the kind and quality of their healing experiences in this particular program which provides a comprehensive matrix of Native American medicine as well as Western models of psychological treatment. The purpose of this study was to understand and document the experience of substance abuse recovery from the perspective of the Native Americans in treatment. Twelve themes emerged from the data analysis: feeling cared for; spiritual experience; insight; making a commitment; empowerment/self-esteem; releasing emotional pain; remorse; reconnecting to traditional values; forgiveness; relief; safety; and gratitude.

Acculturation↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Finnish international twin- and friendship-hospital work.

This article describes co-operation between three psychiatric hospitals in different parts of the world. Twin- and friendship-hospital work is a way to increase the status of psychiatric hospitals and psychiatric patients in society. Direct contacts between hospital workers of these hospitals is now part of everyday life. It has been an innovative addition to 'normal' psychiatric work.

Child↗
PubMed2006

Stimulants, neuroleptics, and children's friendship training for children with fetal alcohol spectrum disorders.

BACKGROUND: Peer relationship problems are a significant part of the clinical presentation of children with Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD). Many of these children have been prescribed psychotropic medications by community practitioners. The present study reports on the interaction between medication status and parent and teacher-reported outcomes for parent-assisted Children's Friendship Training (CFT). METHODS: Seventy seven children (40 boys and 37 girls, age range was 71-139 months) diagnosed with FASD were given 12 sessions of CFT. Parent- and teacher-reported social outcomes were compared across four subgroups of children who were prescribed either stimulant or neuroleptic medication, neither or both types of medications. RESULTS: According to parent and teacher reports, children prescribed neuroleptic medication showed greater improvement on all outcome measures when compared to children not prescribed neuroleptics. In contrast, children prescribed stimulant medication either failed to show improvement or showed poorer outcomes when compared to children not prescribed stimulants. IMPLICATIONS: Children with FASD frequently present with symptoms of inattention and hyperactivity. The present results suggest physicians routinely ask about prenatal alcohol exposure as part of history taking to treat children more effectively who appear to be displaying attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder symptomatology but who may have FASD.

Antipsychotic Agents↗
PubMed1995

Loneliness among the never and formerly married: the importance of supportive friendships and a desire for independence.

Loneliness is an experience that is commonly associated with being old and without a partner. Results from a Dutch sample involving 131 unpartnered men and women between the ages of 65 and 75 indicate that the absence of friendship support rather than being single is an important determinant of loneliness. In accordance with the theory of mental incongruity, relationship standards and perceived opportunities of improving relationships are also shown to be significantly associated with loneliness. Older men and women without a partner are most vulnerable to loneliness when they have a high partner standard or a low singlehood standard, and see few opportunities to change their situation (for example, as a result of experienced health restrictions). A better understanding of loneliness is obtained if not only the quality of relationships is considered, but also the degree of congruity between relationships and relationship standards, and the favorability of perceived opportunities for bringing about improvements.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

Cannabis and smoking research: interviewing young people in self-selected friendship pairs.

This paper will discuss the use of paired interviewing as the main method of generating data in a study exploring the social context of young people's smoking and cannabis use. The research, conducted as part of an on-going PhD, involved 59 participants of both genders, aged 13-15 from different socioeconomic backgrounds, and with a wide range of cigarette and cannabis use experience. Participants were offered the choice of an individual interview or a paired interview with a friend of their choice, most opting for the paired format. The paper will discuss many of the methodological and ethical features of this method. In particular, it will discuss the potential for paired interviewing to access accounts generated within close friendship bonds, making this method distinctive from larger focus groups. It will also explore how paired interviewing facilitates access to interactions between participants, shedding light on many aspects of young people's social relationships and allowing occasional glimpses into more private territory. It will argue that the paired interview method can make a novel and distinctive contribution to health education/promotion research, policy and practice, and to any research that aims more fully to understand aspects of young people's social worlds.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Cross-setting consistency in early adolescent psychopathology: deviant friendships and problem behavior sequelae.

This study examines adult reports of externalizing and internalizing psychopathology at home and school in a sample of 224 high-risk adolescent boys and girls (average age 12 years). Four groups of young adolescents were defined, based on the consistency of the teacher and parent Child Behavior Checklist reports: normal, internalizing, externalizing only, and comorbid. Group comparisons revealed the comorbid and externalizing groups were more engaged in a deviant peer group and were observed in higher levels of deviancy training with their friends, compared to other young adolescent groups. In general, elevated levels of arrest, drug use, and sexual promiscuity were associated with cross-setting consistency in externalizing disorders. Comorbid youth, however, showed the highest levels of sexual promiscuity in middle adolescence, compared to all other groups. These findings are consistent with a developmental account of adolescent maladjustment and suggest that emotional disturbance in early adolescence might exacerbate youth vulnerability, especially to deviancy training within friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

"I got some swords and you're dead!": violent fantasy, antisocial behavior, friendship, and moral sensibility in young children.

Relations between an early interest in violent fantasy and children's social understanding, antisocial and emotional behavior, and interactions with friends were investigated in 40 "hard-to-manage" preschoolers and 40 control children matched for gender, age, and school and ethnic background. Children were filmed alone in a room with a friend, and tested on a battery of cognitive tests, including false-belief, executive function, and emotion understanding tasks. Teachers reported on their friendship quality. At age 6 years, the children's understanding of the emotional consequences of antisocial and prosocial actions was studied. The hard-to-manage group showed higher rates of violent fantasy; across both groups combined, violent fantasy was related to poor executive control and language ability, frequent antisocial behavior, displays of anger and refusal to help a friend, poor communication and coordination of play, more conflict with a friend, and less empathic moral sensibility 2 years later. The usefulness of a focus on the content of children's pretend play-in particular, violent fantasy-as a window on children's preoccupations is considered.

Age Factors↗