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At least 217 records · Page 12Linked to original sources
PubMed1990

The rising fastball: baseball's impossible pitch.

Batters in professional baseball are confronted with pitches that appear to curve, dip, wobble, or rise. The rising fastball is a pitch where the ball appears to hop up as much as a third of a meter with a sudden increase in speed. Physics experiments confirm that many reported trajectories are possible, but not the rising fastball. The present paper shows how the apparent rise may be explained as a perceptual illusion due to the hitter underestimating original speed of the pitch.

Acceleration↗
PubMed2001

Experimental determination of baseball spin and lift.

The aim of this study was to develop a new method for the determination of lift on spinning baseballs. Inertial trajectories of (a) ball surface markers during the first metre of flight and (b) the centre of mass trajectory near home-plate were measured in a pitch using high-speed video. A theoretical model was developed, incorporating aerodynamic Magnus-Robins lift, drag and cross forces, which predicts the centre of mass and marker trajectories. Parameters including initial conditions and aerodynamic coefficients were estimated iteratively by minimizing the error between predicted and measured trajectories. We compare the resulting lift coefficients and spin parameter values with those of previous studies. Lift on four-seam pitches can be as much as three times that of two-seam pitches, although this disparity is reduced for spin parameters greater than 0.4.

Baseball↗
PubMed2006

Comparison of kinematics in skilled and unskilled arms of the same recreational baseball players.

We examined mechanisms of coordination that enable skilled recreational baseball players to make fast overarm throws with their skilled arm and which are absent or rudimentary in their unskilled arm. Arm segment angular kinematics in three dimensions at 1000 Hz were recorded with the search-coil technique from the arms of eight individuals who on one occasion threw with their skilled right arm and on another with their unskilled left arm. Compared with their unskilled arm, the skilled arm had: a larger angular deceleration of the upper arm in space in the forward horizontal direction; a larger shoulder internal rotation velocity at ball release (unskilled arms had a negative velocity); a period of elbow extension deceleration before ball release; and an increase in wrist velocity with an increase in ball speed. It is suggested that some of these differences in arm kinematics occur because of differences between the skilled and unskilled arms in their ability to control interaction torques (the passive torque at one joint due to motion at adjacent joints). It is proposed that one reason unskilled individuals cannot throw fast is that, unlike their skilled counterparts, they have not developed the coordination mechanisms to effectively exploit interaction torques.

Acceleration↗
PubMed2001

Perceptual decision making for baseball pitch recognition: using P300 latency and amplitude to index attentional processing.

This study was designed to examine the perceptual and attentional processes associated with the effects of administering a cost-benefit precuing paradigm to intermediate and advance-level baseball batters. Psychophysiological and performance data obtained from 10 advanced and 10 intermediate-level players were compared. A total of 400 pitches (200 fastballs, 200 curveballs) was randomly presented via a large projection screen, and participants pressed one of two buttons to indicate the type of pitch thrown. Verbal precues were given for 300 of the pitches. Of those, 75% were valid, and 25% were invalid. Electroencephalographic data collected from the P location was used to assess the latency and amplitude of P300. Analysis of variance (Skill Level x Precue x Pitch) for P300 and reaction time (RT) indicated that intermediate batters produced shorter P300 latencies, larger P300 amplitudes, longer RTs, and less correct responses than the advanced batters; the effects were more pronounced for the curveballs. These results suggest that intermediate batters are less efficient in their perceptual decision-making processes due to greater limitations in attentional capacity when compared with advanced batters.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed2002

Throwing patterns used by collegiate baseball players in actual games.

The form of 3,684 throws made by 100 players in 7 collegiate baseball games was examined in relation to position, distance, and active and inactive situations. All throws made from the first pitch to the last out for 94 half innings were videotaped from the stands. The results showed that the interrater reliability of task, environment, and performance measures were all acceptable to excellent (percentage of agreement was at least 80%), indicating that qualitative aspects of throwing can be reliably measured in an actual sport context. Alternatives to the most advanced pattern were observed at least half the time for catchers and infielders at most distances in both active and inactive situations andfor pitchers and outfielders only in inactive situations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Peak performance and age among superathletes: track and field, swimming, baseball, tennis, and golf.

The purpose of this study is to identify the age of peak performance in a broad range of athletic events incorporating multiple, diverse biological systems, learned skills, and motivation. Although many researchers have noted that the absolute levels of peak performance among superathletes have improved dramatically in the last 100 years, to date no one has answered the question of stability of peak performance age over this time period. Analyses of Olympic track and field and swimming data show that the age at which peak performance is achieved has remained remarkably consistent. For both men and women, the age of peak performance increases with the length of the foot race, and women generally achieve peak performance at younger ages. The pattern of increased age with increasing distance is reversed for female swimmers, where younger ages are associated with increasing distance. For most categories of performance in baseball, the peak age of performance is equivalent to that of a long distance runner, about 28 years of age, while top tennis players reach their highest levels of performance at age 24. Golfers, in comparison, peak at about 31 years of age, although recent data suggest movement toward younger ages. A task analysis of each event is carried out, and the relative roles of biology and learning are discussed as determinants of peak performance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

Longitudinal study of elbow and shoulder pain in youth baseball pitchers.

PURPOSE: Previous studies among young pitchers have focused on the frequency and description of elbow injuries. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the frequency of elbow and shoulder complaints in young pitchers and to identify the associations between pitch types, pitch volume, and other risk factors for these conditions. METHODS: A prospective cohort study of 298 youth pitchers was conducted over two seasons. Each participant was contacted via telephone after each game pitched to identify arm complaints. Generalized estimating equations were used to assess associations between arm complaints and independent variables. RESULTS: The frequency of elbow pain was 26%; that of shoulder pain, 32%. Risk factors for elbow pain were increased age, increased weight, decreased height, lifting weights during the season, playing baseball outside the league, decreased self-satisfaction, arm fatigue during the game pitched, and throwing fewer than 300 or more than 600 pitches during the season. Risk factors for shoulder pain included decreased satisfaction, arm fatigue during the game pitched, throwing more than 75 pitches in a game, and throwing fewer than 300 pitches during the season. CONCLUSION: Arm complaints are common, with nearly half of the subjects reporting pain. The factors associated with elbow and shoulder pain were different, suggesting differing etiologies. Developmental factors may be important in both. To lower the risk of pain at both locations, young pitchers probably should not throw more than 75 pitches in a game. Other recommendations are to remove pitchers from a game if they demonstrate arm fatigue and limit pitching in nonleague games.

Alabama↗
PubMed1989

Dynamic EMG analysis of torque transfer in professional baseball pitchers.

Fifteen professional baseball pitchers underwent active pitching motion analysis of the abdominal oblique, rectus abdominis, lumbar paraspinous and gluteus maximus muscles bilaterally via surface electrode evaluation. Baseline resting and isometric maximum values were obtained and active data referenced against these for comparison. The muscle activity then was measured during the pitching sequence and analyzed in each of the five pitching phases. The abdominal oblique, lumbar paraspinous and rectus abdominis contralateral to the pitching arm and the ipsilateral gluteus maximus all had increases in activity level of 75 to 100% during the active pitching motion. Using these data indicating specific muscle group patterns with clinical and performance data, we hope to minimize injuries and maximize pitching performance.

Abdominal Muscles↗
PubMed2005

Biceps tendinitis caused by an osteochondroma in the bicipital groove: a rare cause of shoulder pain in a baseball player.

Tendinitis of the long head of the biceps brachii muscle is commonly seen in athletes who do repetitive overhead motions. Common causes of biceps tendinitis include impingement syndrome, subluxation of the biceps tendon, and attrition tendinitis, whereas biceps tendinitis secondary to a bone neoplasm is rare. A case of biceps tendinitis caused by an osteochondroma arising in the left humeral bicipital groove in a 25-year-old male baseball player is reported. The tumor was hook-shaped, originated from the inferomedial portion of the humeral lesser tubercle, and surrounded the biceps tendon. Symptoms of increasing pain and inability to throw resulted from direct irritation of the biceps tendon by the tumor. Total excision of the tumor relieved the symptoms within 3 weeks. To our knowledge, there have been no reported cases in the English-language literature of biceps tendinitis caused by an osteochondroma.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Sonographic evaluations in elite college baseball athletes.

This study compared the thickness of the biceps and supraspinatus tendons, the widths of the subacromial space in the frontal and scapular planes, and abnormal sonographic findings in the shoulders of injured, and uninjured elite college baseball athletes and healthy controls. This study recruited two groups of 42 and 12 athletes, with and without histories of shoulder injuries, respectively, as well as one control group of 16 college students who were matched for physical characteristics but not involved in sports. The results showed that the thickness of the biceps and supraspinatus tendons and the subacromial space widths at 0 degrees and 90 degrees shoulder abduction in the frontal plane were significantly greater in the athletes than in the controls (P-values <0.004). The occurrences of the acromioclavicular joint bulging, bicep tendon degeneration, infraspinatus tendon degeneration and infraspinatus cortical irregularity differ significantly between the injured athlete and the group of uninjured athletes and controls (P-values <0.05). However, only infraspinatus tendon degeneration corresponded to the injury histories. There was a high similarity of sonographic spectrum of abnormal findings among the groups. Longitudinal follow-ups are required to determine the clinical importance of the sonographic spectrums and the occurrences of abnormal finding in asymptomatic athletes' shoulders.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Influence of shoulder abduction and lateral trunk tilt on peak elbow varus torque for college baseball pitchers during simulated pitching.

Elbow varus torque is a primary factor in the risk of elbow injury during pitching. To examine the effects of shoulder abduction and lateral trunk tilt angles on elbow varus torque, we conducted simulation and regression analyses on 33 college baseball pitchers. Motion data were used for computer simulations in which two angles-shoulder abduction and lateral trunk tilt-were systematically altered. Forty-two simulated motions were generated for each pitcher, and the peak elbow varus torque for each simulated motion was calculated. A two-way analysis of variance was performed to analyze the effects of shoulder abduction and trunk tilt on elbow varus torque. Regression analyses of a simple regression model, second-order regression model, and multiple regression model were also performed. Although regression analyses did not show any significant relationship, computer simulation indicated that the peak elbow varus torque was affected by both angles, and the interaction of those angles was also significant. As trunk tilt to the contralateral side increased, the shoulder abduction angle producing the minimum peak elbow varus torque decreased. It is suggested that shoulder abduction and lateral trunk tilt may be only two of several determinants of peak elbow varus torque.

Abdomen↗
PubMed1995

How baseball outfielders determine where to run to catch fly balls.

Current theory proposes that baseball outfielders catch fly balls by selecting a running path to achieve optical acceleration cancellation of the ball. Yet people appear to lack the ability to discriminate accelerations accurately. This study supports the idea that outfielders convert the temporal problem to a spatial one by selecting a running path that maintains a linear optical trajectory (LOT) for the ball. The LOT model is a strategy of maintaining "control" over the relative direction of optical ball movement in a manner that is similar to simple predator tracking behavior.

Baseball↗
PubMed2003

Evaluation of shoulder internal rotator muscle strength in baseball players with physical signs of glenohumeral joint instability.

OBJECTIVES: To identify whether subjects with glenohumeral translational instability present with a strength deficit in their internal rotator musculature, and therefore to determine if general strengthening exercises are warranted for the management of this condition. METHODS: Eighteen male baseball players were allocated to two groups on the basis of expert clinical evaluation of the presence (n=8) or absence (n=10) of shoulder translational instability. A strain gauge was used to calculate the force generated during maximal isometric internal rotation contractions in neutral shoulder rotation and 30 degrees of internal rotation. RESULTS: The Mann-Whitney test identified no significant difference in force production during the maximum contractions in neutral rotation between the two subject groups. In the position of 30 degrees shoulder internal rotation, subjects with glenohumeral translational instability produced significantly greater force than the control group (p<0.05). CONCLUSIONS: High load strength testing cannot be used as a diagnostic tool to identify people with glenohumeral instability. Similarly, heavy resistance strengthening exercises for the internal rotator musculature are not warranted during rehabilitation.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1992

Ulnar collateral ligament injury in baseball pitchers: MR imaging evaluation.

The ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) provides stability to the medial aspect of the elbow during valgus stress. Trauma to this ligament may result from repetitive forceful throwing. Diagnosis of UCL injury has been based on clinical findings of medial joint pain and valgus instability, as direct imaging of this structure has not been available. Eleven baseball pitchers with clinical evidence of UCL injury were evaluated with magnetic resonance (MR) imaging. Surgical correlation was obtained in six patients, four of whom underwent UCL reconstruction. MR imaging findings in UCL injury included laxity, irregularity, poor definition, and increased signal intensity within and adjacent to the UCL. These findings reflect the presence of hemorrhage and/or edema within the UCL due to repeated microtears, which eventually lead to weakening and possible disruption of the UCL. Optimization of spatial resolution, signal-to-noise ratio, and other technical factors is critical for evaluation of the UCL due to its small size. MR imaging is useful in documenting the presence and severity of injury to the UCL and in distinguishing this entity from other causes of elbow pain.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Contextual interference effects with skilled baseball players.

The learning benefits of contextual interference have been frequently demonstrated in different settings using novice learners. The purpose of the present study was to test such effects with skilled athletic performers. Scheduling differences for biweekly additional ("extra") batting-practice sessions of a collegiate baseball team were examined. 30 players (ns = 10) were blocked on skill and then randomly assigned to one of three groups. The random and blocked groups received 2 additional batting-practice sessions each week for 6 wk. (12 sessions), while the control group received no additional practice. The extra sessions consisted of 45 pitches, 15 fastballs, 15 curveballs, and 15 change-up pitches. The random group received these pitches in a random order, while the blocked group received all 15 of one type, then 15 of the next type, and finally 15 of the last type of pitch in a blocked fashion. All subjects received a pretest of 45 randomly presented pitches of the three varieties. After 6 wk. of extra batting practice, all subjects received two transfer tests, each of 45 trials; one was presented randomly and one blocked. The transfer tests were counterbalanced across subjects. Pretest analysis showed no significant differences among groups. On both the random and blocked transfer tests, however, the random group performed with reliably higher scores than the blocked group, who performed better than the control group. When comparing the pretest to the random transfer test, the random group improved 56.7%, the blocked group 24.8%, and the control group only 6.2%.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

Analysis of data from Reichler's (1979) The Baseball Encyclopedia: right-handed pitchers are taller and heavier than left-handed pitchers.

In 1989 Coren concluded right-handed Major League pitchers whose careers began up to 1975 are significantly taller and heavier than left-handed pitchers. His source of data, Reichler's 1979 edition of The Baseball Encyclopedia, however, lists heights and weights for pitchers whose careers began through 1978 and for individuals who pitched but who almost always appeared at a different position or positions. Coren did not indicate why he did not analyze all of the relevant data in Reichler nor did he explain how he decided that an individual's usual position was that of pitcher. Further, there is evidence from Topp which suggests that the era during which the pitchers began their careers should be considered when comparing their heights and weights because relatively recent rookies (from 1980 through 1986) are taller and heavier than rookies who began their careers 50 and 100 years prior to that era. Classifying an individual as a pitcher if he pitched in at least 50% of the games in which he played at a position, using all relevant data in Reichler, and considering the era during which dextral and sinistral pitchers began their careers, we found strong corroborative evidence for Coren's 1989 findings.

Baseball↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Magnetic resonance imaging of the shoulder in asymptomatic professional baseball pitchers.

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the magnetic resonance imaging findings in both shoulders of asymptomatic professional baseball pitchers. Fourteen pitchers who were without significant prior injury underwent a blinded clinical assessment and magnetic resonance imaging of both shoulders. All images were interpreted by two experienced musculoskeletal radiologists. The appearance of the rotator cuff tendons was graded, with additional evaluation of the biceps, labrum, and osseous structures. Ten athletes were found to have stable shoulders and painless full range of motion. Clinically, four athletes had at least a 40 degrees loss in internal rotation as compared with the nonthrowing arm. There were no significant differences in magnetic resonance imaging findings of the supraspinatus and infraspinatus tendons between the throwing and nonthrowing shoulders. The labrum was abnormal in 79% of the 28 shoulders. Enthesopathic changes of the posterior glenoid labrum were identified in the four pitchers who had loss of internal rotation. We conclude that unenhanced magnetic resonance imaging of the shoulder in asymptomatic high performance throwing athletes reveals abnormalities that may encompass a spectrum of "nonclinical" findings. These data can be useful in separating symptomatic pathologic findings from these variants. Enthesopathic changes of the posterior glenoid labrum in the throwing arm may represent an early Bennett-type lesion. The cause may be excessive traction on the posterior capsule during the pitching motion, with subclinical injury to this area.

Acromion↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Effect of pitch type, pitch count, and pitching mechanics on risk of elbow and shoulder pain in youth baseball pitchers.

BACKGROUND: Joint pain is thought to be an early sign of injury to a pitcher. OBJECTIVE: To evaluate the association between pitch counts, pitch types, and pitching mechanics and shoulder and elbow pain in young pitchers. STUDY DESIGN: Prospective cohort study. METHODS: Four hundred and seventy-six young (ages 9 to 14 years) baseball pitchers were followed for one season. Data were collected from pre- and postseason questionnaires, injury and performance interviews after each game, pitch count logs, and video analysis of pitching mechanics. Generalized estimating equations and logistic regression analysis were used. RESULTS: Half of the subjects experienced elbow or shoulder pain during the season. The curveball was associated with a 52% increased risk of shoulder pain and the slider was associated with an 86% increased risk of elbow pain. There was a significant association between the number of pitches thrown in a game and during the season and the rate of elbow pain and shoulder pain. CONCLUSIONS: Pitchers in this age group should be cautioned about throwing breaking pitches (curveballs and sliders) because of the increased risk of elbow and shoulder pain. Limitations on pitches thrown in a game and in a season can also reduce the risk of pain. Further evaluation of pain and pitching mechanics is necessary.

Adolescent↗