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PubMed1985

Children's perceptions of advertisements for cigarettes.

Groups of children aged between 6 and 16 years discussed a series of advertisements, including those for cigarettes. Clear patterns emerged in their recognition of cigarette brand imagery. For example, in response to an advertisement for holidays which also presents the brand imagery of John Player Special cigarettes, 22% of primary school children and 91% of secondary school children said it advertises cigarettes. There were consistent trends in responses to the symbolism portrayed. Younger children were very much tied to what was specifically shown in the advertisements; older ones tended to perceive more complex imagery. For example, whereas 10-year-olds said people who like the advertisement for Kim cigarettes (which has symbols for drinking) would smoke and drink, some 12-year-olds and most 14- and 16-year-olds saw Kim as feminine, sociable, trendy and sporty. It seems that some 12-year-olds and most 14- and 16-year-olds perceive cigarette advertisements much in the way that young adults do; therefore advertising campaigns targeted at older teenagers and young adults are likely to present qualities which younger teenagers find attractive.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

Prescription drug advertising trends: a study of oral hypoglycemics.

A content analysis of oral hypoglycemic drug advertisements was performed in selected medical journals published in the United States from 1963 to 1986. The 665 advertisements subsequently examined were studied for certain predetermined parameters in order to indicate trends. The trend results may be summarized as follows. As an extension of prescription drug advertising trends in general, oral hypoglycemic drug advertising showed an increasing length along with a subsequent decrease in the amount of space devoted to the copy portion of the advertisement. They also showed a decrease in the use of statistical information and rarely made references to competitors. Nongender specific, colored advertisements with product and use related appeals have become more common with the passage of time. Although the rationale and purpose behind advertising is unchanged, the format has changed considerably. These changes are primarily due to the enhancement of print technology and to some extent, the changing social environment.

Administration, Oral↗
PubMed2006

Attraction and distraction of attention with roadside advertisements.

The optimum positioning of roadside advertisements is recognized by the industry as an important factor in attracting the attention of passing drivers. Less acknowledged is the possibility that the location of an advertisement may distract attention from vital driving-related information. This study compared street-level advertisements (SLAs; predominantly bus shelters) with raised-level advertisements (RLAs) of the same size that were suspended 3 m above the ground, on their ability to attract attention under different task conditions. Participants were split into two groups and watched video clips of driving, rating them for hazardousness while their eye movements were recorded. One of the groups was additionally primed to attend to advertisements. SLAs received the most fixations when participants were solely looking for hazards, and the fewest fixations when primed to look for advertisements. Though SLAs also had longer fixations than the RLAs, they were more poorly recognized in a subsequent memory test. We conclude that SLAs attract and hold attention at inappropriate times compared to raised-level advertisements.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Adolescents' responses to the gender valence of cigarette advertising imagery: the role of affect and the self-concept.

The studies presented in this manuscript evaluated the role that affect and the self-concept play in adolescent never smokers' reactions to the gender valence of cigarette advertising imagery. Study 1 (n=29; 59% female) revealed that adolescent females have more positive affective reactions to female-valenced cigarette advertising imagery compared to male-valenced cigarette advertising imagery. Study 2 (n=101; 56% female) revealed that adolescent females viewed female-valenced cigarette advertising imagery as more relevant to their self-concepts compared to male-valenced cigarette advertising imagery. Across both studies, male adolescents did not respond differently as a function of the gender valence of cigarette advertising imagery. Thus, female-valenced cigarette advertising imagery may have specific effects on never smoking female adolescents by enhancing positive affect and suggesting that women who smoke hold the same characteristics as do the young women themselves.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Saturated in beer: awareness of beer advertising in late childhood and adolescence.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to examine exposure, response to, and awareness of beer advertising in 2 age groups, including awareness of a Budweiser advertisement (ad) that portrayed lizards and an animated ferret. METHODS: In the spring of 2000, 1,996 fourth graders and 1,525 ninth graders attending 1 of 60 South Dakota schools participated in an in-school survey. Several indicators of advertising awareness, exposure, and response were assessed: recognition, product naming, brand naming, and liking in response to stills drawn from 4 masked television beer ads, listing of beer brands, exposure, attention to, and skepticism toward television beer ads. RESULTS: Fourteen percent of 4th graders and 20% of 9th graders recognized at least 3 of 4 sample beer ads. Seventy-five percent of 4th graders and 87% of 9th graders recognized the Budweiser ferret ad; about one in three 4th graders could name the brand it advertised, whereas more than three in four 9th graders could do so. When asked to list as many beer brands as they could, almost 29% of 4th graders listed 3 or more beer brands and 82% of 9th graders did so. Ninth graders liked beer advertisements more and paid greater attention to them, but 4th graders were exposed to them more often. CONCLUSION: Television beer ads result in high levels of beer advertising awareness in children as young as age 9, and even higher awareness among 14-year-olds. Practices that expose or appeal to youth, including use of animated characters, should be avoided by beer advertisers.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Food advertising targeted at school-age children: a content analysis.

OBJECTIVE: To determine whether the contents of food and beverage advertisements are associated with physical activity and athletic ability more often than those for toys and games, and to describe persuasive techniques used in advertising food and beverages to children. DESIGN: A content analysis of advertisements during 31 hours of school-age children's television programming. ANALYSIS: Chi-square tests were used to examine differences in depictions of physical activity. Types of persuasive techniques were tabulated and, within each advertisement, categorized as implicit or explicit. RESULTS: Food and beverage ads depicted children engaged in physical activity and associated the advertised product with athletic ability significantly more than toy and game ads. Food was most often associated with fun and good times (75%), pleasant taste (54.1%), being hip or cool (43.2%), and feelings of happiness (43.2%). IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH AND PRACTICE: These findings raise concern that greater levels of physical activity and athletic ability in food advertising, in which the product is frequently associated with fun, may promote overconsumption, especially of calorie-dense, nutrient-poor foods. Further research would elucidate whether this concern is warranted. On the other hand, since food advertisements are presumably effective, health educators can use these techniques to formulate messages for nutritious foods. This concept should be tested with well-designed interventions.

Advertising↗
PubMed2003

Content analysis of television advertising for cars and minivans: 1983-1998.

Very little systematic information is available about the predominant advertising themes automobile manufacturers have depicted over the years. The goal of the present study was to analyze television vehicle advertising to understand how cars and passenger vans are being portrayed in the media and how this has changed over time. A virtually complete sample (561) of car and passenger van advertisements from 1998, and a sample of advertisements from 1983 (98), 1988 (96), and 1993 (95), was analyzed for content. Performance, most often exemplified as speed, power, and maneuverability, was the primary theme in 17% of advertisements in 1998 and was depicted in half of all advertisements. Performance was also the most frequent theme over time. Sales incentives also was a popular theme in each year studied, and was predominant in 1993. Safety was mentioned infrequently, except in 1993; a time when manufacturers were competing to install airbags in their vehicles. A focus on vehicle performance in advertising that does not depict the potential negative consequences can have the deleterious effects of glamorizing and legitimizing high-speed travel. Furthermore, manufacturers are missing an opportunity to promote vehicle safety, a feature that consumers have indicated is very important to them.

Advertising↗
PubMed2003

Effects of pro- and anti-tobacco advertising on nonsmoking adolescents' intentions to smoke.

PURPOSE: To determine the effects of pro- and anti-tobacco advertising on nonsmoking adolescents' intention to smoke in a single cohort. METHODS: All ninth graders at seven public high schools were invited to participate in a study on adolescent tobacco use; 59.0% participated (n = 1229; active positive parental consent required). Adolescents who self-identified as never having smoked even a puff of a cigarette (n = 512) completed a self-administered questionnaire that included questions on intention to smoke in the near future and tobacco advertising. Independent variables used to predict intention included exposure to, recognition of, and receptivity and attitudes toward pro-tobacco and anti-tobacco advertising. Potential confounding variables included gender, race/ethnicity, smoking influences (adult household members, siblings, and friends), socioeconomic status, stress, and depression. Data analysis used logistic regression. RESULTS DEMOGRAPHICS: 50.5% female, average age 14.9 +/- 0.4 years old at baseline, and varied race. Those variables found to be significant predictors of intention to smoke included: (positive, or increased intention) recognition of brand of favorite advertisement, willingness to use or wear tobacco-branded products, stress, and having friends who smoke and (negative, or decreased intention) agreement with anti-tobacco advertising and having a live-in father who smokes. CONCLUSIONS: Although anti-tobacco advertising has a protective effect, it was unable to counteract the effects of pro-tobacco advertising in the same cohort.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

Positive responses to televised beer advertisements associated with drinking and problems reported by 18 to 29-year-olds.

AIMS: To examine the nature of the relationships between responses to alcohol advertisements and drinking behaviour and related problems. To examine the role of positive and negative beliefs about drinking as intervening variables. DESIGN: Survey utilizing a CATI (computer-assisted telephone interviewing) system, involving interviews with 1012 randomly selected respondents. SETTING: Respondents were randomly selected from throughout New Zealand. PARTICIPANTS: Eighteen to twenty-nine-year-old New Zealanders. MEASUREMENTS: Response to specific alcohol advertisements was measured by recalled exposure (how often they recalled having seen the advertisements) and liking (a measure of positive response). FINDINGS: An exploratory non-recursive structural equation model, based on 791 drinkers provided tentative support for the hypothesis that positive responses to televised beer advertisements (as measured by liking) contributed to the quantity of alcohol consumed on drinking occasions, which in turn contributed to the level of alcohol-related problems. The model, which provided a good fit to the data, was consistent with the hypothesis that liking of beer advertisements had both a direct influence on quantities of alcohol consumed and an indirect influence, via its influence on positive beliefs. These effects were present after controlling for reciprocal effects, none of which were significant. The data did not support the hypothesis that the quantities of alcohol consumed would influence the respondent's liking of beer advertisements. Recalled exposure was not a significant influence on the quantities consumed. CONCLUSIONS: The results are consistent with a number of theoretical perspectives and with a growing body of research that are suggestive of alcohol advertising having some influence on the consumption of younger people.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

The weighty issue of Australian television food advertising and childhood obesity.

ISSUE ADDRESSED: The aim of this paper is to provide an accessible overview of research literature on the link between childhood obesity and food advertising on Australian television. METHODS: A systematic review of current medical, public health, psychological and marketing research literature surrounding the topics of childhood obesity and television food advertising, with emphasis on Australian data. RESULTS: Childhood obesity rates have tripled since 1985, mirrored by increases in consumption of energy-dense foods. Energy-dense food advertising is ubiquitous in children's television programming, but children's ability to perceive the commercial intent of advertisements only emerges gradually as a function of age. Until such time, children are trusting, and hence vulnerable, to food advertising, influencing their desires and purchase requests to parents. There is robust evidence to suggest that television viewing and childhood obesity are related. However, the direction of causation and specific contribution of food advertising remains equivocal. Moreover, the link between television and childhood obesity is surprisingly weak, with only a small independent effect size (approximately 1%). CONCLUSIONS: Television food advertising seems to have only a very small, indirect link to childhood obesity.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Riskier than we think? The relationship between risk statement completeness and perceptions of direct to consumer advertised prescription drugs.

Direct to consumer (DTC) prescription drug advertising is one of the fastest growing categories of advertising. Expenditures have increased from about $25 million in 1992 to nearly $2 billion in 1999. Given strong evidence of consumer-driven demand for advertised prescription drugs, research was conducted to assess the extent to which DTC prescription drug advertising provides consumers with the information they need to make an informed evaluation of an advertised drug's relative benefits and risks. Two studies explored the relationship between the completeness of the statement describing drug-associated side effects (the "risk statement") and consumers' perceptions of a drug's safety and appeal. The research manipulated risk statement completeness with regard to the incidence levels of side effects mentioned in the statement (which in turn affected the number of side effects mentioned) and the presence or absence of a numeric indicator of side effect incidence. The research strongly suggests a direct relationship between risk statement completeness and consumers' perceptions of drug safety and appeal. Consumers rate the safety and appeal of drugs described with an incomplete risk statement significantly more positively than comparable drugs described with a more complete risk statement. Implications of the research for the regulation and presentation of DTC prescription drug advertising and advertiser communication practices are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Tobacco prevention advertising: lessons from the commercial world.

This paper presents observations on how commercial TV advertising usually works with young people, discusses the special circumstances using advertising as a smoking prevention tool, and suggests research to guide future efforts. It is important for prevention efforts to recognize that in everyday life many young people are not systematic decision-makers; their intentions are extremely volatile and context-dependent, and they are highly spontaneous. So trying to change their smoking risk status with a TV ad that affects their conscious intentions toward smoking may not impact how they react when someone offers to share a cigarette with them behind the garage--even if it affects how they answer a "Do you think you'll ever take up smoking?" question right after seeing the ad. Advertising is good at getting consumers to focus on products--either in creating new brands, or in keeping familiar brands foremost in mind. Advertising is also good at providing models of concrete behaviors for people to imitate. Prevention efforts need to use advertising for what it is good at, and by and large this means being very concrete. Ultimately, for research to contribute to better prevention advertising, it needs to give the people who actually create that advertising a set of vivid, compelling images of who it is they are trying to reach and what it is that moves them. Some research methods which, when done properly, can serve this function are focus groups, anthropological studies, psychographic segmentations, moment-by-moment observational measurement, improved copy-testing methodology, and grounded-theory development.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

Scoreboard advertising at sporting events as a health promotion medium.

This report describes spectator recall of SunSmart skin cancer prevention advertising displayed on the Brisbane Cricket Ground scoreboard at intermittent periods throughout the 1999/2000 cricket season and the sun-protective behaviors of these spectators. Two hundred and thirty-one spectators were asked a series of five questions about their recall of SunSmart advertising and their present sunscreen usage. Respondents' sun-protective behavior observed at the time of questioning was also recorded. The SunSmart advertising was seen by 15.6% of respondents. Recall of the SunSmart advertising was higher amongst spectators observed to have high levels of sun protection than amongst spectators with low levels of sun protection. Females were more likely than males to recall the SunSmart advertising. The efficacy of health-promoting advertising in the sports setting has yet to be established and therefore results cannot be compared against accepted benchmarks. This study contributes baseline data that will enable such comparisons to be made. The increase in recent years of health-promoting advertising at sports events, often as part of a comprehensive sponsorship program, necessitates the need for further research in this area.

Advertising↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Collaborative research and action to control the geographic placement of outdoor advertising of alcohol and tobacco products in Chicago.

Community activists in Chicago believed their neighborhoods were being targeted by alcohol and tobacco outdoor advertisers, despite the Outdoor Advertising Association of America's voluntary code of principles, which claims to restrict the placement of ads for age-restricted products and prevent billboard saturation of urban neighborhoods. A research and action plan resulted from a 10-year collaborative partnership among Loyola University Chicago, the American Lung Association of Metropolitan Chicago (ALAMC), and community activists from a predominately African American church, St. Sabina Parish. In 1997 Loyola University and ALAMC researchers conducted a cross-sectional prevalence survey of alcohol and tobacco outdoor advertising. Computer mapping was used to locate all 4,247 licensed billboards in Chicago that were within 500- and 1,000-foot radiuses of schools, parks, and playlots. A 50% sample of billboards was visually surveyed and coded for advertising content. The percentage of alcohol and tobacco billboards within the 500- and 1,000-foot zones ranged from 0% to 54%. African American and Hispanic neighborhoods were disproportionately targeted for outdoor advertising of alcohol and tobacco. Data were used to convince the Chicago City Council to pass one of the nation's toughest anti-alcohol and tobacco billboard ordinances, based on zoning rather than advertising content. The ordinance was challenged in court by advertisers. Recent Supreme Court rulings made enactment of local billboard ordinances problematic. Nevertheless, the research, which resulted in specific legislative action, demonstrated the importance of linkages among academic, practice, and grassroots community groups in working together to diminish one of the social causes of health disparities.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

The effects of tobacco advertising on children.

The London Based Children's Research Unit (CRU) has investigated juvenile smoking initiation and advertising in 15 countries. Each country investigated differed with respect to tobacco advertising restrictions, ranging from Norway, which has had a long-term ban on all advertising of tobacco products, to Hong Kong and Japan, which had few advertising restrictions at the time of the research. Advertising was not found to significantly influence juvenile smoking initiation and it was also found to be a poor predictor of juvenile smoking prevalence. That is, countries with tobacco advertising did not have a higher level of juvenile smoking prevalence than countries without advertising.

Advertising↗
PubMed1996

Cigarette advertising and onset of smoking in children: questionnaire survey.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate uptake of smoking in a cohort of 11 to 12 year olds related to awareness of advertised cigarette brands named. DESIGN: Self completed questionnaires administered to whole classes of schoolchildren in June 1993 and June 1994. SETTING: Primary, middle, and secondary schools in the north and south of England. SUBJECTS: 1450 pupils aged 11 and 12 years at the time of the first survey. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Onset of smoking and brands smoked by the second survey related to cigarette brands named in the first one. Less advertised brands were used as the base for calculating odds ratios. RESULTS: Girls who named the most advertised brands-namely, Benson and Hedges alone (odds ratio = 2.50, 95% confidence interval = 1.18 to 5.30) or Benson and Hedges and Silk Cut (2.15, 1.04 to 4.42) in the first survey were at greatest risk of taking up smoking by the second one. The difference was similar but not significant for boys. Boys and girls who named the least advertised brands in the first survey were at no greater risk of taking up smoking by the second survey than those who named no brands (boys odds ratio = 0.49 (0.24 to 1.01); girls 0.79 (0.38 to 1.62)). New smokers were more likely to smoke any available brand (29.5%) or a less advertised brand such as Embassy (24.6%) than the most advertised ones, Benson and Hedges (19.7%) and Silk Cut (14.8%). Established smokers were more selective, only 15% smoking any available brand and 38.3% smoking Benson and Hedges. CONCLUSIONS: Cigarette advertising appears to increase children's awareness of smoking at a generic level and encourages them to take up the behaviour, beginning with any cigarettes which are available and affordable.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2001

State variation in retail promotions and advertising for Marlboro cigarettes.

BACKGROUND: There is some evidence that tobacco companies marketing efforts undermine the effects of comprehensive tobacco control programmes. OBJECTIVE: To determine whether point-of-purchase advertising and promotions are more pervasive in states where comprehensive tobacco control programmes are underway. DESIGN: Cross sectional survey using 1996 data, with merged records of the existence of local tobacco advertising restrictions. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING: 581 tobacco retail stores located in close proximity to high schools in mainland USA. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Existence of gift-with-purchase, number of interior advertisements, and exterior store advertisements for Marlboro cigarettes. RESULTS: After controlling for store type and existence of advertising restrictions, offer of a gift-with-purchase for Marlboro cigarettes was significantly more likely in states with comprehensive tobacco control programmes than those without programmes (odds ratio 2.59, 95% confidence interval 1.57 to 4.26). Although not significant, results show an increase in the number of interior and exterior store advertisements for stores located in states with a comprehensive tobacco control programme than those in other states. CONCLUSION: Results suggest some point-of-purchase tobacco promotions and advertising are more pervasive in states with comprehensive tobacco control programmes. These efforts are likely to act against the objectives of programmes and need to be accounted for in programme evaluations.

Advertising↗
PubMed1999

Sharing the blame: smoking experimentation and future smoking-attributable mortality due to Joe Camel and Marlboro advertising and promotions.

BACKGROUND: Despite public denials, internal tobacco company documents indicate that adolescents have long been the target of cigarette advertising and promotional activities. Recent longitudinal evidence suggests that 34% of new experimentation occurs because of advertising and promotions. OBJECTIVE: To apportion responsibility for smoking experimentation and future smoking-attributable mortality among major cigarette brands attractive to young people (Camel and Marlboro). DATA SOURCES, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS: Data were from confirmed never-smoking adolescents (12-17 years old) responding to the 1993 (n = 2659) and 1996 (n = 2779) population-based California Tobacco Surveys. MAIN OUTCOMES: Adolescents named the brand of their favourite cigarette advertisements and tobacco promotional items. Using these "market shares" and the relative importance of advertising and promotions in encouraging smoking, we estimated how many new experimenters from 1988 to 1998 in the United States can be attributed to Camel and Marlboro. From other data on the natural history of smoking, we projected how many future deaths in the United States can be attributed to each brand. RESULTS: Although Camel advertisements were favoured more than Marlboro and other brands in 1993 and 1996, the "market share" for promotional items shifted markedly during this period from Camel and other brands towards Marlboro. We estimated that between 1988 and 1998, there will be 7.9 million new experimenters because of tobacco advertising and promotions. This will result in 4.7 million new established smokers: 2.1, 1.2, and 1.4 million due to Camel, Marlboro, and other brands' advertising and promotions, respectively. Of these, 1.2 million will eventually die from smoking-attributable diseases: 520,000 from Camel, 300,000 from Marlboro, and the remainder from other brands. CONCLUSIONS: Our analysis provides a reasonable first estimate at sharing the blame for the long-term health consequences of smoking among the major brands that encourage adolescents to start smoking.

Adolescent↗