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PubMed2006

Hunger and satiety in anorexia nervosa: fMRI during cognitive processing of food pictures.

Neuroimaging studies of visually presented food stimuli in patients with anorexia nervosa have demonstrated decreased activations in inferior parietal and visual occipital areas, and increased frontal activations relative to healthy persons, but so far no inferences could be drawn with respect to the influence of hunger or satiety. Thirteen patients with AN and 10 healthy control subjects (aged 13-21) rated visual food and non-food stimuli for pleasantness during functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) in a hungry and a satiated state. AN patients rated food as less pleasant than controls. When satiated, AN patients showed decreased activation in left inferior parietal cortex relative to controls. When hungry, AN patients displayed weaker activation of the right visual occipital cortex than healthy controls. Food stimuli during satiety compared with hunger were associated with stronger right occipital activation in patients and with stronger activation in left lateral orbitofrontal cortex, the middle portion of the right anterior cingulate, and left middle temporal gyrus in controls. The observed group differences in the fMRI activation to food pictures point to decreased food-related somatosensory processing in AN during satiety and to attentional mechanisms during hunger that might facilitate restricted eating in AN.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Perceived hunger is lower and weight loss is greater in overweight premenopausal women consuming a low-carbohydrate/high-protein vs high-carbohydrate/low-fat diet.

The impact of a low-carbohydrate/high-protein diet compared with a high-carbohydrate/low-fat diet on ratings of hunger and cognitive eating restraint were examined. Overweight premenopausal women consumed a low-carbohydrate/high-protein (n=13) or high-carbohydrate/low-fat diet (n=15) for 6 weeks. Fasting body weight (BW) was measured and the Eating Inventory was completed at baseline, weeks 1 to 4, and week 6. All women experienced a reduction in BW (P<.01), although relative BW loss was greater in the low-carbohydrate/high-protein vs high-carbohydrate/low-fat group at week 6 (P<.05). Based on Eating Inventory scores, self-rated hunger decreased (P<.03) in women in the low-carbohydrate/high-protein but not in the high-carbohydrate/low-fat group from baseline to week 6. In both groups, self-rated cognitive eating restraint increased (P<.01) from baseline to week 1 and remained constant to week 6. Both diet groups reported increased cognitive eating restraint, facilitating short-term weight loss; however, the decrease in hunger perception in the low-carbohydrate/high-protein group may have contributed to a greater percentage of BW loss.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Position of the American Dietetic Association: food insecurity and hunger in the United States.

It is the position of the American Dietetic Association that systematic and sustained action is needed to bring an end to domestic food insecurity and hunger and to achieve food and nutrition security for all in the United States. The Association believes that immediate and long-range interventions are needed, including adequate funding for and increased utilization of food and nutrition assistance programs, the inclusion of food and nutrition education in all programs providing food and nutrition assistance, and innovative programs to promote and support the economic self-sufficiency of individuals and families, to end food insecurity and hunger in the United States. Food insecurity continues to exist in the United States, with over 38 million people experiencing it sometime in 2004. Negative nutritional and nonnutritional outcomes have been associated with food insecurity in adults, adolescents, and children, including poor dietary intake and nutritional status, poor health, increased risk for the development of chronic diseases, poor psychological and cognitive functioning, and substandard academic achievement. Dietetics professionals can play a key role in ending food insecurity and hunger and are uniquely positioned to make valuable contributions through provision of comprehensive food and nutrition education, competent and collaborative practice, innovative research related to accessing a safe and secure food supply, and advocacy efforts at the local, state, regional, and national levels.

Dietetics↗
PubMed2004

Behavioral evidence for competing motivational drives of nociception and hunger.

Homeostasis, an organisms' tendency to maintain a healthy balance of the physiological state of the body, is necessary for survival. Hunger induces a motivational state to consume food. Recently, pain has been referred to as a homeostatic emotion similar to hunger or thirst in that animals are motivated to respond in a certain way that may increase their chance of survival. Therefore, the purpose of the present experiment was to examine behavior in rodents during two competing homeostatic/motivational drives (i.e., hunger and formalin pain). During the first phase of the formalin test, animals displayed typical responsiveness to the inflammatory condition and completed fewer chains for food reinforcement as compared to the baseline session. However, during the second phase of the formalin test, animals showed decreased nociceptive behavior compared to formalin-injected animals that were not trained in the operant conditioning paradigm. During this phase, the trained animals exhibited maximal responsiveness for food reinforcement. These results demonstrate that the engagement of behaviors reflecting motivational drives to restore homeostasis depends on the intensity or degree of imbalance of the competing drives. More specifically, animals are motivated to attend to one state of imbalance at a time.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Relationship of hunger and food insecurity to food availability and consumption.

OBJECTIVE: To describe the relationship of new measures of hunger and food insecurity to household food supplies and individual food and nutrient intake. DESIGN AND SETTING: A questionnaire containing the Radimer/Cornell hunger and food insecurity items and questions on eating patterns and the frequency of fruit and vegetable consumption was administered to subjects during a personal interview in their homes. A 24-hour diet recall and a household food inventory were conducted at the initial interview and at a follow-up visit. SUBJECTS: Participants were 193 women drawn from a random sample of 308 women who had completed a previous health census in a rural New York State county. Subjects' ages ranged from 15 to 40 years. All had children living at home and less than 16 years of education. STATISTICAL ANALYSES: Regression analysis was used to test for linear trends across food insecurity groups for the household food inventory scores and for the frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables. t Tests were used to assess differences between the food secure and food insecure groups for nutrient and food group means. A chi 2 test for trend was used to examine differences in the distribution of nutrient and fruit and vegetable intake between the food secure and food insecure groups. RESULTS: A significant decrease in the frequency of consumption of fruits and vegetables and the amount of food in the household and a significant increase in scores indicative of disordered eating patterns were associated with a worsening of food insecurity status. Potassium and fiber intake and fruit consumption differed significantly between the food secure and food insecure groups. The percentage of respondents consuming less than the Recommended Dietary Allowance for vitamin C and fewer than five fruits and vegetables per day was significantly greater among food insecure respondents than food secure respondents. APPLICATIONS/CONCLUSIONS: The quantity of food available in households and consumption of fruits and vegetables decreased with increasingly severe problems with food insecurity and hunger. In this rural population, the Radimer/ Cornell measures were useful in identifying households experiencing food insecurity and providing information about the nature of the food supply and the dietary intake problems experienced by food insecure households and persons, suggesting that these measures may be useful on community surveys designed to examine food insecurity issues.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Twenty-four-hour pattern of hunger sensation in obesity complicated by type 2 diabetes mellitus: a pattern recognition by spectral analysis.

Hunger sensation (HS) in humans physiologically shows intraday (circadian) and within-day (ultradian) recursivity. This intrinsic periodicity was investigated by applying the cosinor method and spectral analysis to the 24-hour profile of HS (orexigram) derived by a self-rating score (from 1 to 10 hunger units [HU]) recorded every half-hour. The study of circadian and ultradian recursivity on the orexigram was performed in 30 diabetic obese patients ([DOPs], 14 men and 16 women aged 22 to 62 years; body weight, 77 to 130 kg; body mass index, 31-47). The control group consisted of 30 clinically healthy subjects ([CHS], 15 men and 15 women aged 21 to 60 years; body weight, 65 to 72 kg; body mass index, 23 to 25). DOPs showed two types of orexigrams in which hunger was felt with limitation to the diurnal part of the day or with extension to the night, respectively. The type 1 orexigram was characterized by a normal spectrum and circadian rhythm. The type 2 orexigram was characterized by subsidiary ultradian components associated with an abnormal elevation of the circadian mesor and a significant delay of the circadian phase, as the spectral analysis was indicative of a structural difference in the frequencies that sustain the intraday and within-day recursivity of the HS. Accordingly, DOPs can be recognized by their orexigram as "eurectic" or "hyperrectic" to indicate subjects with a normal or an exaggerated HS, respectively, during the 24-hour span.

Adult↗
PubMed1987

Are there hunger and satiety factors in the blood of domestic fowls?

The presence of blood-borne hunger and satiety factors in domestic fowls was investigated in two experiments. In the first, birds that had previously been fed ad libitum or fasted for 24 h ate less after their blood had been transfused with that of fed or fasted donors than they did after two control treatments. Blood from fed donors suppressed intake more than did blood from fasted donors, but not significantly so. In the second experiment, previously fed birds ate less in the first hour after intravenous injection of reconstituted plasma from 24-h fasted donors, than after control injections of saline. The same treatments had little or no effect with subjects that had previously been fasted for 24 h. These results consistently indicate an absence of any hunger factor, but are less conclusive with regard to the presence of a satiety factor, for which there is recent evidence in fowls from central administration of plasma. It is suggested that hunger and satiety may be associated with scarcity and abundance of the same humoral factor(s), and that monitoring of blood composition may provide the necessary feedback for longer-term adjustments in food intake, modifying short-term control based on emptying and filling of part(s) of the alimentary tract.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Frequency and duration of food insecurity and hunger in US households.

OBJECTIVE: This study examines the extent to which food insecurity and hunger in US households are occasional, recurring, or frequent/chronic. Design/Variables: The federal food security scale measures the severity of food insecurity in surveyed households and classifies households as to their food security status during the previous year. The Current Population Survey Food Security Supplement (CPS-FSS) collects the data elements used to calculate the food security scale. Supplementary data on the frequency of occurrence of the behaviors and experiences comprising the food security scale are also collected by the CPS-FSS, but most of this information is not included in the food security scale. This study analyzes these supplementary data along with the food security scale and its constituent items using data from the Food Security Supplement of the nationally representative CPS conducted in August 1998. RESULTS: About two thirds of households classified as food insecure by the federal food security scale experience the condition as recurring, and around one fifth experience these conditions as frequent or chronic. The monthly prevalence of hunger is about 60% of the annual prevalence, and the daily prevalence is about 13% to 18% of the annual prevalence. CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATIONS: Nutritionists can use these findings to enhance the informative value of food insecurity and hunger statistics from national, state, and local surveys when interpreting them to policy makers and to the general public.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1986

Hunger perceptions and satiety responses among normal-weight bulimics and normals to a high-calorie, carbohydrate-rich food.

The hunger perceptions and satiety responses to a high-calorie, carbohydrate-rich food among 10 normal-weight females who met the DSM-III criteria for bulimia were compared with 10 normal-weight females who denied a current or past history of eating or weight disorders. As indicated by self-report responses on the Hunger-Satiety Questionnaire, bulimics did not differ from the normals in their perceptions of hunger sensations. Differences, however, were detected in the responses following eating. Most notably, the bulimics reported feelings of irritability, nervousness, tenseness and depression which persisted 30 minutes later. These findings and directions for future research are discussed.

Arousal↗
PubMed1975

Some new perspectives on conditioned hunger.

One theory holds that appetitive drives such as hunger and thirst are not conditionable because of their slow onset. However, recent evidence has shown only transitory conditioning of appetitive drives even with rapid onset. Such experiments may have failed because: (a) Exteroceptive conditioned stimuli (CSs) used in past experiments may be less easily accociated with the internal hunger drive than are interoceptive taste cues. Experiments 1-3 provided some support for this hypothesis. (b) The dependent measures used in past experiments may not be valid. Experiments 4 and 5 suggested that changes in the rate of bar pressing on an operant extinction curve following probe CSs for hunger may be a more sensitive and valid index of conditioned appetitive drive. However, the elusive and transitory nature of these results demands a reexamination of the basic difference between appetitive and aversive drives, which lies in the mode of their onset and control and which, given adaptive considerations, can account for their widely different conditionability.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Hunger alters the expression of acquired hedonic but not sensory qualities of food-paired odors in humans.

To test whether expression of hedonic and sensory odor qualities acquired by association with sweet and bitter tastes depend on hunger state, hungry volunteers experienced odors paired with sucrose, quinine, or water and then were tested under different hunger states manipulated with energy preloads. Acquired liking for sucrose-paired odors was evident following a low-energy or control preload but not a high-energy preload; however, odor sweetness increased in all preload conditions. Acquired dislike and increased bitterness of quinine-paired odors were independent of preloading. These data demonstrate hunger-dependent expression of acquired liking for flavors through flavor-flavor associations in humans and demonstrate independence between acquired hedonic and sensory qualities of odors.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Association of leptin and hunger-satiety ratings in obese women.

OBJECTIVE: To measure leptin, insulin and cholecystokinin (CCK) concentrations in obese women on calorie restriction and to determine their correlation with hunger-satiety ratings. Although it has been proposed to play a role in appetite regulation, the effects of physiological concentrations of these hormones on hunger-satiety in humans have not yet been well established. DESIGN: Prospective metabolic study. A two week 'wash-in period' followed by a three-week observation period, during which each subject underwent six measurements of satiety, blood parameters and body weight. SETTING: Energy Metabolism Research Unit, Department of Nutrition Sciences, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, Alabama, USA. SUBJECTS: 22 moderately to severely overweight women (mean age: 45 +/- 8 y; body mass index (BMI): 33 +/- 6 kg/m2). INTERVENTION: Energy restriction, in the form of a 3.3 MJ (800 kcal) diet during five weeks. MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS: Fasting blood levels of leptin, insulin, glucose and CCK, fasting hunger-satiety scores and body weight. RESULTS: The mean (+/- s.d.) fasting serum leptin concentration at the beginning of the observation period was 26.1 +/- 15.9 ng/ml (range: 6.7-59.8 ng/ml). Leptin concentrations correlated positively with body weight (P < 0.0001). Furthermore, reductions in body weight were associated with decreases in fasting leptin levels (P = 0.002). Leptin concentrations correlated with serum levels of insulin (P = 0.0001) and CCK (P = 0.06), but in multivariate analysis including insulin, CCK and glucose, only leptin had a significant relationship with satiety (P = 0.04). This relationship was linear. CONCLUSIONS: These results confirm the association between leptin levels, body weight and serum insulin. We also showed that higher serum leptin levels correlated with greater feelings of fullness, a relationship which was not blunted in the more obese subjects. These findings suggest that leptin is a satiety hormone that reduces appetite, even in obese individuals, and that weight gain must be due to other factors, overriding this feed-back regulation.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

The measurement of dietary restraint, disinhibition and hunger: an examination of the factor structure of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ).

OBJECTIVE: To conduct separate factor analyses of the Three Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ-R, TFEQ-D and TFEQ-H) scales and provide initial evidence of the construct validity of the obtained solutions. DESIGN: A cross-sectional survey with a 12 month retest of a subsample of subjects. SUBJECTS: A total of 553 undergraduate university women with a mean age of 25.0 y. The retest sample comprised 64 subjects with a mean age at retest of 25.7 y. MEASUREMENTS: In addition to the TFEQ, age, body mass index (BMI), satisfaction with current weight, nutrition knowledge and current exercise level were recorded. RESULTS: Three restraint (strategic dieting behaviour, attitude to self-regulation, avoidance of fattening foods), three disinhibition (habitual susceptibility, emotional susceptibility, situational susceptibility) and two hunger constructs (internal locus for hunger, external locus for hunger) were identified. Initial evidence of the validity of these constructs was provided. CONCLUSION: The explanation of disordered eating behaviour is likely to be refined more by specific constructs, such as those presented, rather than by the more general constructs measured by the original TFEQ-R, TFEQ-D and TFEQ-H scales. Further examination of the factor structures presented is therefore encouraged.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Cachexia in MAC16 adenocarcinoma: suppression of hunger despite normal regulation of leptin, insulin and hypothalamic neuropeptide Y.

Weight loss normally stimulates hunger, through mechanisms that include falls in circulating leptin and insulin, leading to stimulation of hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY). Here, we investigated the leptin, insulin and NPY to clarify why hunger is suppressed in mice with severe cachexia due to the MAC16 adenocarcinoma. MAC16-bearing mice progressively lost weight (19% below controls) and fat (- 61%) over 16 days after tumour transplantation, while total food intake fell by 10%. Pair-fed mice showed less wasting, with final weight being 9% and fat mass 25% below controls. Plasma leptin fell by 85% in MAC16 and 51% in pair-fed mice, in proportion to loss of fat. Plasma insulin was also reduced by 49% in MAC16 and 53% in pair-fed groups. Hypothalamic leptin receptor (OB-Rb) mRNA was significantly increased in both MAC16 (+ 223%) and pair-fed (+192%) mice. Hypothalamic NPY mRNA was also significantly raised in MAC16 (+152%) and pair-fed (+ 99%) groups, showing negative correlations with plasma leptin and insulin, and a positive association with OB-Rb mRNA. In MAC16-induced cachexia, leptin production and hypothalamic OB-Rb and NPY expression are regulated appropriately in response to fat depletion. Therefore, suppression of hunger is probably due to tumour products that inhibit NPY transport or release, or that interfere with neuronal targets downstream of NPY.

Adenocarcinoma↗
PubMed1999

Neuroanatomical correlates of hunger and satiation in humans using positron emission tomography.

The central role of the hypothalamus in the origination and/or processing of feeding-related stimuli may be modulated by the activity of other functional areas of the brain including the insular cortex (involved in enteroceptive monitoring) and the prefrontal cortex (involved in the inhibition of inappropriate response tendencies). Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF), a marker of neuronal activity, was measured in 11 healthy, normal-weight men by using positron emission tomography in a state of hunger (after 36-h fast) and a state of satiation (after a liquid meal). Hunger was associated with significantly increased rCBF in the vicinity of the hypothalamus and insular cortex and in additional paralimbic and limbic areas (orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate cortex, and parahippocampal and hippocampal formation), thalamus, caudate, precuneus, putamen, and cerebellum. Satiation was associated with increased rCBF in the vicinity of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, and inferior parietal lobule. Changes in plasma insulin concentrations in response to the meal were negatively correlated with changes in rCBF in the insular and orbitofrontal cortex. Changes in plasma free fatty acid concentrations in response to the meal were negatively correlated with changes in rCBF in the anterior cingulate and positively correlated with changes in rCBF in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. In conclusion, these findings raise the possibility that several regions of the brain participate in the regulation of hunger and satiation and that insulin and free fatty acids may be metabolic modulators of postprandial brain neuronal events. Although exploratory, the present study provides a foundation for investigating the human brain regions and cognitive operations that respond to nutritional stimuli.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Effect of guar gum on body-weight, hunger ratings and metabolism in obese subjects.

The effect of a palatable granulated guar-gum preparation (10 g twice daily) was studied in obese subjects. The acute effect of a single dose of guar gum to reduce the peak postprandial whole blood glucose levels (about 10%) was verified. Following long-term treatment, a further reduction was seen in the obese subjects with the highest postprandial glucose levels. Since the postprandial plasma insulin levels were essentially unchanged, this finding suggested an increased responsiveness to insulin. Total serum cholesterol levels were significantly reduced following long-term treatment but serum alpha-cholesterol levels, representing the high-density-lipoprotein fraction, was unchanged. Body-weight was significantly reduced during guar-gum treatment even though the patients were asked to maintain their normal dietary habits. Daily hunger ratings recorded for up to 10 weeks showed that guar gum reduced hunger significantly better than commercially available bran taken in the same way. Thus, guar gum seemed to influence carbohydrate and lipid metabolism in a beneficial way in obese subjects. The reduction in hunger would offer an additional benefit to these patients.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Effects of intense sweeteners on hunger, food intake, and body weight: a review.

The sweet taste of aspartame, saccharin, and acesulfame-K has been reported to increase ratings of hunger and, after saccharin consumption, to increase food intake. However, most investigators have found that aspartame consumption is associated with decreased or unchanged ratings of hunger. Even if aspartame consumption increases ratings of hunger in some situations, it apparently has little impact on the controls of food intake and body weight. Aspartame has not been found to increase food intake; indeed, both short-term and long-term studies have shown that consumption of aspartame-sweetened foods or drinks is associated with either no change or a reduction in food intake. Preliminary clinical trials suggest that aspartame may be useful aid in a complete diet-and-exercise program or in weight maintenance. Intense sweeteners have never been found to cause weight gain in humans.

Aspartame↗
PubMed2000

Effects of a 6-week hypocaloric diet on changes in body composition, hunger, and subsequent weight regain in healthy young and older adults.

Recent studies have suggested a short-term impairment in the regulation of food intake in older adults, but further studies are needed to determine if a longer-term impairment exists and to identify underlying causes. Changes in body weight and composition were measured over a 6-week underfeeding study and a 6-month follow-up period in healthy young (n = 23) and older (OLD, n = 18) men and women. The young adults were either normal weight (YNW, n = 12) or overweight (YOW, n = 11). Energy intakes during underfeeding were 896 +/- 18 (SEM) kcal less than weight-maintenance energy requirements determined prior to underfeeding. In addition, changes in perceived hunger during underfeeding were monitored in a subgroup (n = 19). OLD and YOW subjects lost significantly more weight during underfeeding than did YNW subjects (p = .025 and .000, respectively), and they did not gain back significant weight in the 6-month follow-up. In addition, OLD subjects reported a significantly lower frequency of hunger during underfeeding (p = .05). There was no significant difference among groups in the relationship between weight lost and fat-free mass lost. Healthy OLD adults have an impaired ability to regulate food intake over at least 6 months following underfeeding compared with YNW adults, and a reduction in their perceived frequency of hunger may be a contributing factor.

Adult↗