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PubMed1996

Validity of skinfold estimates of percent fat in high school female gymnasts.

A preseason estimation of body composition may be useful for assigning a safe minimal body weight for female gymnasts. The present investigation examined the validity of 11 skinfold equations for predicting percent body fat (%fat) in high school female gymnasts (X age +/- SD = 15.7 +/- 1.2 yr) by comparing the values with those obtained from underwater weighing. Seventy-three gymnasts (X %fat +/- SD = 18.6 +/- 4.5%fat) volunteered to serve as subjects. The statistical analyses included examination of the constant error (CE), standard error of estimate (SEE), correlation coefficient (r), and total error (TE). The results of this investigation indicated that 7 of the 11 equations resulted in TE values that were < or = 3.9%fat (range, 3.3-3.9%fat). Of these, the quadratic sum-of-three skinfold equation of Thorland et al. (37) satisfies the most cross-validation criteria and, therefore, is recommended for estimating body composition and minimal body weight in high school female gymnasts. The other six equations with TE values of < or = 3.9%fat should be considered acceptable alternatives.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1981

Effects of relaxation and/or biofeedback training upon hip flexion in gymnasts.

In study I 10 male gymnasts were matched for hip flexibility and then randomly placed in either a control or a biofeedback group. After warm-up exercises, the control group practiced self-relaxation while the biofeedback group received EMG feedback from the hip extensors. Both groups significantly improved hip flexion from trial 1 to trial 9. The biofeedback group significantly improved more quickly across trials, as measured by slope analysis, than the control group. In Study II 15 female gymnasts were matched for flexibility than randomly placed in control, relaxation, or biofeedback plus relaxation groups. Each gymnast completed STAI (A-state), warm-up exercises, and a 10-minute treatment and was then tested for hip flexion. The control group received no treatment, the second group received modified progressive relaxation, while the last group received relaxation and EMG hip extensor feedback. All groups significantly improved from trial 1 to trial 8 with no one group superior to the others. There were no significant differences among groups for rate of improvement across trials. There were no significant correlations among state anxiety, age, and flexibility measures.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Arthroscopy and microfracture technique in the treatment of osteochondritis dissecans of the humeral capitellum: report of three adolescent gymnasts.

The aim of this paper is to report on three cases of symptomatic osteochondritis dissecans of the humeral capitellum in adolescent gymnasts, two females and one male. In all the cases arthroscopic surgery was performed. During arthroscopy, loose osteochondral fragments were removed, the defect was debrided and microfractures were performed. All the three patients regained the full range of motion of the affected elbow, and returned to the high-level gymnastics within a period of 5 months. At 12 months follow-up, all the three patients remained symptomless and were participating in high-level gymnastics. A combination of arthroscopy and the microfracture technique is a reliable method with excellent short-term results in the treatment of the osteochondritis dissecans of the elbow.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Former college artistic gymnasts maintain higher BMD: a nine-year follow-up.

INTRODUCTION: If higher bone gains acquired from weight-bearing sports during growth persist into old age, the residual benefits could delay or even prevent osteoporotic fractures. The purpose of this study was to determine if the higher areal bone mineral density (aBMD) observed 15 years after competitive training and competition in former female college artistic gymnasts (GYM) compared with controls (CON) is maintained nine years later in this same cohort approaching menopause. In this 9-year follow-up, aBMD changes were also compared between GYM (n=16; aged 45.3+/-3.3 years) and CON (n=13; aged 45.4+/-3.8 years). METHODS: Total body, lumbar spine, proximal femur, femoral neck, leg, and arm aBMD were assessed at baseline and follow-up using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA), (Hologic QDR-1000W). GYM had higher aBMD at all sites at follow-up (P<0.05; eta (2)>0.14). RESULTS: While there were no significant differences between groups for percent changes in aBMD at the total body, lumbar spine, total proximal femur, femoral neck, and arm, the change in leg aBMD was significantly different between GYM and CON (P=0.05; eta (2)=0.14). CONCLUSIONS: Former female college artistic gymnasts maintained significantly higher aBMD than controls 24 years after retirement from gymnastics training and competition. This study provides greater insight into the effects of past athletic participation on skeletal health in women approaching menopause.

Absorptiometry, Photon↗
PubMed2002

Effects of chronic intensive training on androgenic and cortisol profiles in premenarchal female gymnasts.

The effect of intensive exercise training on urinary androgen and cortisol excretions in prepubertal girls of various ages was tested in competitive premenarchal gymnasts ( n=56) and in age-matched controls ( n=53). Both sexual maturation and bone age were assessed. Urinary excretions of androstenedione, dehydroepiandrosterone sulphate (DHEA-S), testosterone and cortisol were determined by radioimmunoassay procedures. The gymnasts were taller [mean (SD) 138.3 (9.0) cm vs 144.7 (8.3) cm; P<0.001] and lighter [32.0 (6.9) kg vs 36.7 (8.2) kg; P<0.001], and had a lower percentage of fat mass [16.8 (2.2)% vs 22.5 (6.6)%; P<0.0001] than the controls. There was no difference between groups in urinary testosterone, cortisol and DHEA-S levels, while androstenedione levels were significantly lower in gymnasts than in controls [mean (SEM) 187.10 (18.00) nmol/24 h vs 256.50 (15.00) nmol/24 h; P<0.01). There was no difference in the regression slopes between the two groups for all hormonal values. In conclusion, these results suggest that during the prepubertal period, intensive training alters only urinary androstenedione concentrations in girls.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Extensor tendon impingement in a gymnast.

Wrist injuries in the gymnast are due to the transformation of the upper extremity into a weight bearing entity. Gymnast wrist pain presents a difficult diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. Here, we present a new case of extensor tendon impingement in an elite gymnast. To our knowledge, there is no similar report in the literature.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Is there a transfer of postural ability from specific to unspecific postures in elite gymnasts?

The purpose of this study was to investigate the transfer of postural ability by comparing the level of performance and postural control of elite gymnasts in postures specifically trained or not. Fifteen elite gymnasts were asked to stand as still as possible with eyes opened in three conditions: bipedal, unipedal and handstand. Surface and mean velocity of the centre of pressure motions were used to quantify respectively performance and postural control. A ranking was made for each parameter to determine the level of each subject. As a whole, the subject's level of postural performance and control in one condition was not correlated to the corresponded level in another condition. Therefore, postural ability of elite gymnasts in the handstand is not transferable to upright standing postures.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Habituation to galvanic vestibular stimulation for analysis of postural control abilities in gymnasts.

The possible correlation between postural control abilities in gymnasts and the sensitivity for and the degree of short-term habituation to galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) was studied. Seven balance trained young girls (Dutch National Junior Gymnasts Championship) versus seven non-trained girls and twenty-five women underwent computer-controlled GVS using a monaural continuous 1-cosinusoidal stimulus of 0.5 Hz and 2 mA, repeated three times on each side [Balter, Stokroos, Boumans, Kingma, Acta Otolaryngol. (in press); Balter, Stokroos, Eterman, Paredis, Orbons, Kingma, Acta Otolaryngol. (in press)]. Results showed that mean total galvanic-induced body sway (GBS) gain was significantly lower in the trained and untrained girls compared to the adult women (P < 0.05). Mean habituation to GVS (learning abilities), however, showed no significant differences between the three groups. We suggest that the superior balance control in professional gymnasts is primarily achieved through motor training and not by learning abilities or a higher sensitivity of the vestibular system [Neurosci. Lett. 225 (1998) 155].

Adult↗
PubMed2000

The young gymnast.

Gymnastics training develops strength, flexibility, concentration, balance, grace, and speed in young athletes. In terms of hours per week and intensity of practice, the dedication to training at a young age, is unparalleled in most other youth sports. With this dedication comes the risk of injury to the immature musculoskeletal system, and it is our duty to ensure that these risks are minimized. Through adequate safety equipment, supervision, and spotting of difficult techniques, a number of acute injuries may be prevented. Maintenance of balanced flexibility and strength, modification of training to limit pain, and taping or splinting of wrists and ankles may reduce the risk of overuse injuries. Physician who deal with young gymnasts must have an understanding of the inherent risks of the sport to provide prompt diagnoses and appropriate management of injuries. The gymnasium can be a healthy environment as long as the health and safety of the child takes precedence over the success of the gymnast.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Dermatological marks in athletes of artistic and rhythmic gymnastics.

The authors present dermatological signs in: a) rhythmic gymnastics athletes, b) male artistic gymnastics athletes, compared to a control group of fitness athletes. Athletes from the artistic gymnastics group were observed twice. The signs they showed on their first examination (20 days previous to the competition) were two circular zones of thickening of the skin with relation to the radial epiphysis. In all of them, two zones of frictional alopecia were present, one on the dorsal face of the forearms, slantwise outlined, the other on the wrists. A noticeable thickening of the skin was present on the palms of the hands. On a second examination, at the beginning of the training, after about two months of inactivity, the alopecic area was replaced by hypertrichosis, although featuring different patterns in each athlete. Thickening of the skin was slightly smaller than that observed at the first examination. The authors describe onychopathology shown in its different forms in 94 % of the athletes of the rhythmic group. Subsequently the authors discuss the pathogenesis of the above described signs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

[Discomforts and injuries of the spine and medical examinations in young talented female gymnasts].

The distribution of pain and injuries in gymnasts is dependent on the quality of training, but also on sport-medical supervision. In a retrospective analysis 41 female gymnasts aged 11 +/- 2.8 years training 14 h/week filled in a questionnaire on pain and injuries as well as on frequency of sports medical and spine specific examinations. 14 reported partly recurring pain mainly in the lumbar spine and 10 injuries mainly in the cervical spine. Medical treatment needed 6 after recurring pain and 6 after the injuries. Except 3 gymnasts all had been investigated medically at least once, in the mean 1.5 years, after beginning with intensive training. The clinical investigation included an investigation of the spine in 64 % out of which (2/3) received additional x-ray diagnostics. Only among the older participants scoliosis and spondylolisthesis where found twice each. Though no connection between pain or injury was found in relation to previous medical investigation, a thorough clinical and in case of doubt additional radiological investigation of the spine should be performed before intensive training.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

[Spinal changes in artistic gymnasts].

36 former competitive artistic women gymnasts and 10 general women gymnasts were examined after at least three years following their withdrawal from sports, for any pathological changes in their vertebral column. Anamnesis revealed that 64% of the artistic gymnasts complained of back pain during competitive sports, and even after having given it up there were still 61% complaining. X-ray film showed degenerative changes of the vertebral bodies and the intervertebral joints in 51.4%. Incidence of spondylolysis was 31.4% and hence two and a half times above that among the normal population. In 22 cases where x-ray films were available from the time they had been active, we found an increase rate of 36.4% in respect of spondylolysis, a worsening of scoliosis by 22.7% and an increase in degenerative changes at the minor vertebral joints by 31.8%.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The measurement of competitive anxiety during balance beam performance in gymnasts.

The purpose of the present study was to investigate competitive anxiety during balance beam performance in gymnasts. Competitive anxiety was assessed continuously by heart rate monitoring and by retrospective self-report of nervousness in eight female national level gymnasts during their balance beam routine during one competition and two training sessions. A significant negative correlation was found between the score of the retrospective self-report of nervousness and performance during the routine. There were no significant differences in performance score by the judges between the three test sessions. There were also no differences in the retrospective self-report of nervousness. However, heart rate was significantly higher during the competition session than during the training sessions. The potential value of the retrospective report of nervousness for the study of critical events during gymnastic performance is illustrated. The results are discussed in the light of catastrophe theory.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1988

Intraseason changes in the body composition of collegiate female gymnasts.

Body composition measures were collected pre-, mid- and post-season on a team of eight national-calibre collegiate women gymnasts to examine intraseason changes. Also analysed were interseason changes using pre- and post-season data on five of the eight subjects during the current and previous year, according to a 2 x 2 (years x tests) analysis of variance repeated-measures design. Skinfold, circumference and diameter measures were collected with percentage body fat, lean body mass and body density determined by regression equations developed specifically for collegiate female gymnasts. Intraseason body weight decreased significantly from pre- to mid-season (means = 55.0 and 53.6 kg respectively); but the difference between mid- and post-season (53.9 kg) values was not significant (P greater than 0.05). The majority of the 1.4 kg weight loss occurred during intense pre-season conditioning and not during the actual season. Percentage body fat, on the other hand, decreased significantly from pre- to mid-season and mid- to post-season (means = 21.4%, 17.4% and 13.45% respectively; P less than 0.0005). Body density increased significantly from pre- to mid-season and mid- to post-season (means = 1.0476, 1.0584 and 1.0681 respectively; P greater than 0.0005). Of the circumference and skinfold values used in calculating percentage body fat and body density, only the skinfold values displayed significant decreases throughout the season. Interseason analyses revealed no significant changes in any of the dependent measures between seasons, despite consistent trends. There were no significant years x tests interactions and all intraseason changes for two seasons (n = 5) were the same as those found in more detailed analysis of a single season (n = 8) except in the case of weight loss, which was marginally significant (P less than 0.046) in the single-season and not in the dual-season analysis (P greater than 0.05). Body composition of these gymnasts changed in many ways within competitive seasons. The most pronounced changes observed were decreases in subcutaneous fat and increases in body density. This study reinforces the need for administrators, coaches and athletes to be concerned with percentage body fat and skinfold measures rather than weight alone when determining if a person is 'fat'.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed2004

Anthropometric and biomechanical field measures of floor and vault ability in 8 to 14 year old talent-selected gymnasts.

The aim of this study was to identify the anthropometric and physical prerequisites for high difficulty floor tumbling and vaulting. Twenty 8-14 year old female talent-selected gymnasts performed handstand push-offs, and single and multiple jumps on a portable Kistler force plate. The force curves were analysed using Kistler and Excel software to obtain peak displacement, peak take-off force, and power The gymnasts were also assessed for sprinting, with and without vaulting, and standing broad jump performances. Video footage from the vault take-off was analysed using Video Expert II software to obtain the horizontal and vertical take-off velocities. Each gymnast's best vault starting score, three best floor tumbling skills, and anthropometric characteristics were recorded. Statistical analysis included one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) to examine the effect of age (8-10 years, 11-12 years, 13-14 years) on the performance measures and linear regression analysis with performance start score for vault or best floor tumbling score as the outcome variable. The best regression model for indicating vaulting talent had, as predictor variables, resultant velocity at take-off from the board, squat jump power, and average power during the last five jumps in the continuous bent-leg jump series. The best regression model for indicating floor tumbling ability had, as predictor variables, age, vault running velocity, and reduced ground contact time in a handstand push-off.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

Age, fat-free weight, and isokinetic peak torque in high school female gymnasts.

The purpose of this study was to examine the covariate influence of fat-free weight (FFW) on age-related increases in isokinetic peak torque for leg flexion and extension in high school female gymnasts. Seventy-two gymnasts (X age +/- SD = 15 7 +/- 1.2 yr) volunteered to be measured for isokinetic leg flexion and extension strength using a calibrated Cybex II dynamometer at 30, 180, and 300 degrees*s(-1) as well as for body composition from underwater weighing. The results indicated that there were significant (P < 0.05) zero-order correlations for age versus leg flexion (r = 0.36-0.47) and extension (r = 0.51-0.57) peak torque, as well as FFW versus leg flexion (r = 0.50-0.66) and extension (r = 0.620.73) peak torque. There were also significant (P < 0.05) first-order partial correlations between age and peak torque (covaried for FFW) for leg extension at 30 (r = 0.25), 180 (r = 0.36-0.39), and 300 degrees*s(-1) (r = 0.25-0.28) but not for leg flexion. These findings indicated that for the high school female gymnasts in the present study, there were age-related increases in strength that could not be accounted for by changes in FFW. It is possible that factors such as an increase in muscle mass per unit of FFW and/or neural maturation contribute to strength increases during adolescence in female athletes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1997

Validity of bioelectrical impedence equations for estimating fat-free weight in high school female gymnasts.

The present study examined the validity of bioelectrical impedence (BIA) equations for estimating fat-free weight (FFW) in female gymnasts by comparing the values to those obtained from underwater weighing (UWW). Ninety-seven female Caucasian high school gymnasts (mean age +/- SD = 15.7 +/- 1.1 yr) participated in the study. FFW from UWW was calculated from percent fat using the revised formula of Brozek et al. (mean FFW +/- SD = 43.8 +/- 4.5 kg) and the age-specific constants of Lohman (mean FFW +/- SD = 44.8 +/- 4.6 kg). Cross-validation analyses included examination of the constant error (CE), SEE, r, and total error (TE). The results indicated similar trends between equations when based on either the Brozek or Lohman conversions; however, the CE, SEE, and TE values were consistently lower for the majority of the equations using the revised formula of Brozek et al. Based upon the results of the cross-validation analyses, the equation of Houtkooper et al. and the interlaboratory equations of Van Loan et al. and Lohman, which resulted in identical TE values of 2.4 kg are recommended for use with young high school gymnasts.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Serum IGF-I is higher in gymnasts than runners and predicts bone and lean mass.

INTRODUCTION: We examined the relationships between insulin-like growth factor I (IGF-I), its binding protein (IGFBP-3), body composition, and bone mineral density (BMD) in collegiate runners (N = 13), gymnasts (N = 10), and noncompetitive women (N = 10). METHODS: Subjects were evaluated by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry for body composition and BMD of the spine, hip, and whole body, fasting serum levels of IGF-I and IGFBP-3, and dietary intake. The ratio IGF-I/IGFBP-3 was calculated as a marker of IGF-I bioavailability. RESULTS: In ANOVA, IGF-I and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 in athletes with oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea did not differ from eumenorrheic athletes; thus, values were pooled. Lean/height2 and bone mass at the hip and spine were higher in gymnasts than runners and controls. Total caloric intake was similar between groups. IGF-I and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 differed between groups with gymnasts having higher IGF-I values than runners (397+/-58 vs 288+/-73 ng x mL(-1), P < 0.001) and higher IGF-I/IGFBP-3 than controls and runners (0.065+/-0.009 vs 0.056+/-0.008 vs 0.045+/-0.009, P = 0.0001). In simple regression, IGF-I and IGF-/IGFBP-3 were related to lean/height2 and BMD of the lumbar spine and hip (P < 0.01-0.0001). IGF-I and IGF-I/IGFBP-3 were multicollinear; thus, the ratio was used in subsequent stepwise regression. Lean mass, corrected for body surface area (height2), independently predicted spine and trochanteric BMD (R2 = 0.26, 0.28, respectively), whereas IGF-I/IGFBP-3 and lean/height2 together contributed to 48% of the variance in femoral neck BMD. CONCLUSION: We conclude that, in this group of young adult women, lower BMD in runners may be due, in part, to lower levels of IGF-I and the ratio of IGF-I-to-IGFBP-3 and that IGF-I may mediate the relationship between bone and lean mass.

Adolescent↗