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PubMed1995

Subtyping versus subgrouping processes in stereotype representation.

Participants were instructed to organize information about group members either by distinguishing stereotype-consistent from stereotype-inconsistent individuals (subtyping instructions), by dividing the individuals into multiple groups on the basis of similarities and differences (subgrouping instructions), or with no explicit organizing instructions. Participants given the subtyping instructions showed greater perceived stereotypicality and homogeneity and perceived a greater difference in how typical the confirming versus disconfirming group members were, relative to subgroup participants. Study 2 demonstrated natural variation among participants in the perceived atypicality of the disconfirming relative to confirming individuals when learning about a gay activist group. Atypicality predicted perceptions of this group, even when prejudice and strength of stereotyping toward gays as a whole were statistically controlled.

Female↗
PubMed2003

Instruction in learning a temporal pattern on an anticipation-coincidence task.

Using a computer-simulated anticipation-coincidence task, the main aim of the study was to examine the effect of the type of instruction on learning a temporal pattern. For this task, participants must learn to anticipate the appropriate time to launch a projectile to hit a moving target. The experiment involved three instructional conditions. In the Explicit-rule Discover Instruction Condition participants were informed that target speed could change from trial to trial and that change is controlled by a regular pattern. Their task was then to search, to identify, and to use such pattern to enhance their anticipation. In the Explicit-Informative Instruction Condition, participants were, however, allowed before practice to examine attentively the regular pattern. Participants were also explicitly urged to use the pattern they observed to ensure a better interception of the target. Finally, in the Implicit Instruction Condition, participants were only informed that their task was to hit, or at least, to place the projectile as near as possible to the target. No additional information was provied about the target's behaviour. Analysis indicated that learning the temporal pattern was more important in Implicit than in Explicit-rule Discover Instruction Condion. However, the Explicit-Informative Instruction Condition produced unambiguouslly the highest learning. Overall, the study highlights the role of information over guidance in the understanding of the effect of the instructions on learning. Finally, we discussed the implications of these results on the comprehension of the variability of the effects of the instruction on learning.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The effectiveness of a highly explicit, teacher-directed strategy instruction routine: changing the writing performance of students with learning disabilities.

This study examined the effectiveness of a highly explicit, teacher-directed instructional routine used to teach three planning strategies for writing to fourth and fifth graders with learning disabilities. In comparison to peers who received process writing instruction, children who were taught the three planning strategies-goal setting, brainstorming, and organizing-spent more time planning stories in advance of writing and produced stories that were qualitatively better. One month after the end of instruction, students who had been taught the strategies not only maintained their advantage in story quality but also produced longer stories than those produced by their peers who were taught process writing. However, the highly explicit, teacher-directed strategy instructional routine used in this study did not promote transfer to an uninstructed genre, persuasive essay writing. These findings are discussed in terms of their relevance to effective writing instruction practices for students with learning disabilities.

Child↗
PubMed2003

Patient compliance in avoiding wrong-site surgery.

BACKGROUND: Wrong-site orthopaedic surgery is an uncommon, devastating, and preventable complication. The sole responsibility for avoiding this inadvertent event has historically been placed on physicians, nurses, and ancillary health-care personnel. Very little attention has been focused on the role of the patient. The successful outcome of any surgical or medical intervention requires an interactive doctor-patient relationship. The hypothesis of this study was that a substantial number of patients who undergo elective orthopaedic surgery do not comply with instructions designed specifically to prevent wrong-site surgery. METHODS: We prospectively evaluated the frequency with which 100 consecutive patients in a private foot-and-ankle practice followed the explicit preoperative instruction, before they underwent elective orthopaedic surgery, to mark "NO" on the extremity that was not to be operated on. Full compliance was defined as a mark on the correct extremity consistent with the instructions. Partial compliance was defined as a mark that was different from that requested by the specific preoperative instructions, and noncompliance was defined as the absence of any mark. Specific demographic and surgical factors were recorded from medical charts and compared between compliant and noncompliant patients. RESULTS: Fifty-nine of the 100 patients marked the extremity correctly, thirty-seven made no mark, and four were considered partially compliant. Of the ten patients with a Workers' Compensation claim, seven were noncompliant compared with thirty (33%) of the ninety patients who had not made a Workers' Compensation claim (p = 0.023). Patients who had had a previous related surgical procedure also had a significantly higher rate of noncompliance (51%; nineteen of thirty-seven) compared with those with no previous surgery (29%; eighteen of sixty-three; p = 0.023). CONCLUSIONS: A surprisingly high number of patients do not comply with explicit preoperative instructions created specifically to prevent wrong-site surgery. This behavior suggests that patients expect the system to "take care of everything," despite solicitation of their active participation to avoid such adverse events. Although physicians and related health-care personnel certainly have the greatest responsibility to provide the highest possible quality of care, patients undergoing surgery must be encouraged to take a more active role in their health care in order to optimize outcome and minimize risk.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

The recall of stereotypes: the effects of incidentally activated directed forgetting instructions.

Based on the automotive model (J. A. Bargh, 1990) and the directed forgetting paradigm, the present study investigated whether incidentally activated forget and remember cues can lead to similar effects as explicitly given instructions. To this end, the present paper attempted to replicate the findings of Macrae, Bodenhausen, Milne, and Ford (1997) employing their category primes (child abuser, neutral), study lists (List 1, List 2), and procedure. Using explicit directed forgetting instructions, Experiment 1 showed that the recall of the stereotypically relevant words (List 1) was higher when participants were given a remember than a forget instruction. This effect was found regardless of the prime conditions. Similarly, Experiment 2 showed that participants in the child abuser and neutral prime conditions recalled more stereotypically relevant words (List 1) when they were implicitly cued to remember than to forget these words. Experiment 3 showed that cognitively busy participants in the child-abuser, but not in the neutral prime condition, recalled more to-be-forgotten stereotypical words than nonbusy participants. These results are consistent with Macrae et al. s findings, and show that the effects of directed forgetting instructions are similar regardless of whether they were given explicitly or were activated incidentally. Results are discussed in relation to stereotype maintenance.

Adult↗
PubMed2003

The impact of different directed forgetting instructions on implicit and explicit memory: new evidence from a modified process dissociation procedure.

In contrast to previous research on directed forgetting, the present studies adopted a recent modification of the process dissociation procedure (Jacoby, 1991; Richardson-Klavehn & Gardiner, 1995) to accommodate the cross-contamination of memory test performance by implicit and explicit memorial factors. In Experiment 1, 120 subjects were compared in global directed forgetting, item-by-item directed forgetting, and control conditions on estimates of voluntary conscious memory, involuntary conscious memory, and involuntary unconscious memory performance. In Experiment 2, 80 subjects were compared in specific directed forgetting and control conditions on estimates of voluntary conscious memory, involuntary conscious memory, and involuntary unconscious memory performance. Subjects showed significant decrements in voluntary and involuntary conscious memory performance following instructions for directed forgetting in all conditions. None of the directed forgetting conditions showed a decrement in involuntary unconscious memory performance. Results suggest that, regardless of instruction type, directed forgetting prevents the conscious expression of memorial information (both voluntary and involuntary) while leaving unconscious memory intact.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Schizophrenia and semantic priming effects].

INTRODUCTION: This article is a review of studies using the semantic priming paradigm to assess the functioning of semantic memory in schizophrenic patients. CONTEXT: Semantic priming describes the phenomenon of increasing the speed with which a string of letters (the target) is recognized as a word (lexical decision task) by presenting to the subject a semantically related word (the prime) prior to the appearance of the target word. This semantic priming is linked to both automatic and controlled processes depending on experimental conditions (stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA), percentage of related words and explicit memory instructions). Automatic process observed with short SOA, low related word percentage and instructions asking only to process the target, could be linked to the "automatic spreading activation" through the semantic network. Controlled processes involve "semantic matching" (the number of related and unrelated pairs influences the subjects decision) and "expectancy" (the prime leads the subject to generate an expectancy set of potential target to the prime). These processes can be observed whatever the SOA for the former and with long SOA for the later, but both with only high related word percentage and explicit memory instructions. LITERATURE FINDINGS: Studies evaluating semantic priming effects in schizophrenia show conflicting results: schizophrenic patients can present hyperpriming (semantic priming effect is larger in patients than in controls), hypopriming (semantic priming effect is lower in patients than in controls) or equal semantic priming effects compared to control subjects. DISCUSSION: These results could be associated to a global impairment of controlled processes in schizophrenia, essentially to a dysfunction of semantic matching process. On the other hand, efficiency of semantic automatic spreading activation process is controversial. These discrepancies could be linked to the different experimental conditions used (duration of SOA, proportion of related pairs and instructions), which influence on the degree of involvement of controlled processes and therefore prevent to really assess its functioning. In addition, manipulations of the relation between prime and target (semantic distance, type of semantic relation and strength of semantic relation) seem to influence reaction times. However, the relation between prime and target (mediated priming) frequently used could not be the most relevant relation to understand the way of spreading of activation in semantic network in patients with schizophrenia. Finally, patients with formal thought disorders present particularly high priming effects relative to controls. CONCLUSION: These abnormal semantic priming effects could reflect a dysfunction of automatic spreading activation process and consequently an exaggerated diffusion of activation in the semantic network. In the future, the inclusion of different groups schizophrenic subjects could allow us to determine whether semantic memory disorders are pathognomonic or specific of a particular group of patients with schizophrenia.

Cerebral Cortex↗
PubMed1984

Paired-associate learning and priming effects in amnesia: a neuropsychological study.

Despite severe deficits of recall and recognition, amnesic patients can exhibit normal priming effects. Amnesic patients have also been reported to perform well on tests of paired-associate learning that involve related word pairs (e.g., table-chair). The present study investigated the role of priming effects in paired-associate learning. Experiment 1 illustrated the distinction between the memory impairment of amnesic patients and their intact priming ability. Amnesic patients were markedly deficient in learning unrelated word pairs, despite exhibiting normal priming as measured by a word-completion test involving the same words. In Experiment 2A, amnesic patients showed good paired-associate learning for related word pairs, though control subjects still performed significantly better. In addition, the good performance by amnesic patients was short-lived, and performance fell to baseline after a 2-hr delay. Control subjects performed well above baseline at all delay conditions. Experiment 2B showed that the forgetting of related word pairs by amnesic patients followed the same time course as the decay of word priming. Experiment 3 showed that amnesic patients were as good as control subjects at learning related word pairs when incidental learning and test procedures were used (a word-association test). The advantage of control subjects over amnesic patients in Experiments 2A and 2B could therefore be attributed to the explicit learning instructions that are standard in paired-associate tests. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that amnesic patients exhibited normal priming when they were asked to "free associate" to words (e.g., child) that were semantically related to previously presented words (e.g., baby). The results indicate that both priming effects and paired-associate learning of related word pairs depend on activation, a process that is preserved in amnesia. Activation can account for the findings of good performance by amnesic patients on tests of word priming (Experiments 1 and 2B), related paired associates (Experiments 2A and 2B), and word association (Experiments 3 and 4). Activation is a transient phenomenon presumed to operate on and facilitate access to preexisting representations. Control subjects can establish new associations and can strengthen preexisting associations by engaging processes that are impaired in amnesia. As a result, when explicit learning instructions are used to test paired-associate learning of related word pairs, control subjects can learn better and can remember longer than can amnesic patients (Experiments 2A and 2B).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Alcohol Amnestic Disorder↗
PubMed1986

Why do we still call them "paradoxes"?

The fact that therapists label some events "paradoxical" may suggest that our current beliefs or theories are limited in their ability to adequately account for those phenomena. It is argued that our underlying belief in objectivity surrounds therapeutic "paradoxes" with a persistently paradoxical aura, and leads to confusion in our understanding of a variety of phenomena. Maturana's ideas regarding structure determinism, instructive interaction, and phenomenal domains are used to suggest an answer to these difficulties. It is claimed that the problematic status of many theoretical concepts (for example, communication, information, resistance, homeostasis, and pathology) is revealing of something quite important--that the experiential validity of instructive interaction repeatedly leads us into implicitly or explicitly employing instructive interaction in a domain where it can never be valid: the domain of theory and explanation.

Communication↗
PubMed2002

Motor initiation and execution in patients with conversion paralysis.

Motor initiation and motor execution in four patients with conversion paralysis were investigated in a non-affected motor modality (speech). In line with the hypothesis of dissociated control in conversion disorder [Cognit. Neuropsychiatry 8 (1) (2001) 21] motor initiation, but not response duration, was expected to be impaired. The motor initiation times (reaction time: RT) and motor execution times (response duration: RD) were compared on four RT-tasks that required the production of a verbal response: a simple choice RT-task, a mental letter rotation task, and an implicit and an explicit mental hand rotation task. Because conversion disorder is expected to primarily involve an impairment in the initiation of movement, we expected the following task characteristics to uniquely affect RT and not RD: type of instruction (implicit versus explicit instructed imagery), angle of rotation, and target arm (affected versus non-affected arm). The results indeed showed the task characteristics to significantly affect the participants' RT and not their RD. It was concluded that conversion paralysis is associated with a specific impairment in the explicit initiation of processes with a spatial and motor component.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

The mere exposure effect is sensitive to color information: evidence for color effects in a perceptual implicit memory test.

Priming effects in perceptual tests of implicit memory are assumed to be perceptually specific. Surprisingly, changing object colors from study to test did not diminish priming in most previous studies. However, these studies used implicit tests that are based on object identification, which mainly depends on the analysis of the object shape and therefore operates color-independently. The present study shows that color effects can be found in perceptual implicit tests when the test task requires the processing of color information. In Experiment 1, reliable color priming was found in a mere exposure design (preference test). In Experiment 2, the preference test was contrasted with a conceptually driven color-choice test. Altering the shape of object from study to test resulted in significant priming in the color-choice test but eliminated priming in the preference test. Preference judgments thus largely depend on perceptual processes. In Experiment 3, the preference and the color-choice test were studied under explicit test instructions. Differences in reaction times between the implicit and the explicit test suggest that the implicit test results were not an artifact of explicit retrieval attempts. In contrast with previous assumptions, it is therefore concluded that color is part of the representation that mediates perceptual priming.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Cognitive influences on predictive saccadic tracking.

We have investigated the effects of mental set on predictive capabilities using a saccade square-wave tracking paradigm with ten normal subjects, comparing three amplitudes (10, 20, and 40 degrees ) and five inter-stimulus intervals (ISIs) (400, 500, 625, 1000, and 2000 ms). Subjects were instructed simply to "follow the lights" (passive, reflexive instruction) or explicitly "move your eyes in time with the lights" (active, volitional instruction). Saccades were defined as reflexive (latency>100 ms), predictive (-200 ms<latency<100 ms), or anticipatory (latency<-200 ms). We also calculated arrival time (saccade latency+saccade duration). Instructions had a striking effect on predictive performance. The effects were greatest with the longest ISIs (1000 and 2000 ms) and the largest target displacement (40 degrees ). With the active instruction there were more predictive and anticipatory saccades and with the passive instruction more reflexive saccades. Furthermore, with the active instruction subjects could take into account the duration of the impending saccade so that the eyes would arrive closer to the appearance of the target no matter what the amplitude of the required saccade. In sum, cognitive set, as determined by the specific instructions given to the subject, has a striking effect on predictive saccade behavior, which has important implications for interpreting physiological and imaging correlates of predictive behavior in normals and in patients with neurological disease.

Adult↗
PubMed2001

Directed forgetting with global forget instructions in an implicit and explicit memory test.

This study examined differences in directed forgetting effects between an implicit and an explicit memory test. 64 students (49 men, 15 women) were assigned to 4 (2 x 2) groups. In the middle of the study list, the group was given instruction to forget the presented item, whereas the control instruction group was not. Half of the subjects were given a Fragment Cued-recall test as an explicit memory test, and the other half were given a Fragment Completion test as an implicit memory test. Subjects learned an incidental learning task. Significant differences were found across conditions for instruction. The directed forgetting effect was observed on the explicit memory test (p<.05) but not on the implicit memory test. These results are discussed in terms of inhibition of retrieval theory.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

The properties of retrieval cues constrain the picture superiority effect.

In three experiments, we examined why pictures are remembered better than words on explicit memory tests like recall and recognition, whereas words produce more priming than pictures on some implicit tests, such as word-fragment and word-stem completion (e.g., completing -l-ph-nt or ele----- as elephant). One possibility is that pictures are always more accessible than words if subjects are given explicit retrieval instructions. An alternative possibility is that the properties of the retrieval cues themselves constrain the retrieval processes engaged; word fragments might induce data-driven (perceptually based) retrieval, which favors words regardless of the retrieval instructions. Experiment 1 demonstrated that words were remembered better than pictures on both the word-fragment and word-stem completion tasks under both implicit and explicit retrieval conditions. In Experiment 2, pictures were recalled better than words with semantically related extralist cues. In Experiment 3, when semantic cues were combined with word fragments, pictures and words were recalled equally well under explicit retrieval conditions, but words were superior to pictures under implicit instructions. Thus, the inherently data-limited properties of fragmented words limit their use in accessing conceptual codes. Overall, the results indicate that retrieval operations are largely determined by properties of the retrieval cues under both implicit and explicit retrieval conditions.

Adult↗
PubMed2002

What does the frontomedian cortex contribute to language processing: coherence or theory of mind?

The frontomedian cortex (FMC) has been shown to be important for coherence processes in language comprehension, i.e., for establishing the pragmatic connection between successively presented sentences. The same brain region has a role during theory-of-mind processes, i.e., during the attribution of other people's actions to their motivations, beliefs, or emotions. In this study, we used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging at 3 T to disentangle the relative contributions of the FMC to theory-of-mind (ToM) and coherence processes, respectively. The BOLD response of nine participants was recorded while they listened to pragmatically coherent or unrelated sentence pairs. Using a logic instruction for inanimate sentence pairs, ToM processing was discouraged during the first part of the experiment. Using explicit ToM instructions for sentence pairs mentioning human protagonists, ToM processing was induced during the second part. In three of the resulting four conditions a significant increase in the BOLD response was observed in FMC: when ToM instructions were given, both coherent and incoherent trials elicited frontomedian activation, in replication of previous results showing involvement of the FMC during ToM tasks. When logic instructions were given, the coherent trials, but not the incoherent trials, activated the FMC. These results clearly show that the FMC plays a role in coherence processes even in the absence of concomitant ToM processes. The findings support the view of this cortex having a domain-independent functionality related to volitional aspects of the initiation and maintenance of nonautomatic cognitive processes.

Adult↗
PubMed2005

Repetition priming and recognition memory in younger and older persons: temporal stability and performance.

The dissociation between intact priming and reduced explicit memory in aging has been called into question on the basis of limited information that suggests that priming measures are less reliable than explicit memory measures. No aging study to date, however, has offered a comprehensive examination of the reliability of these measures. Age-related performance and test-retest stability coefficients for multiple priming and explicit memory tasks were compared. Age effects were found on some tasks but not others, and stability was not related to task performance. Stability was similar for implicit versus explicit task instructions, younger versus older persons, and studied versus unstudied items. Results indicate that dissociations between priming and explicit memory performances cannot be accounted for by differential reliability of the measures.

Adult↗
PubMed1984

Transfer of learning strategies: contrast of self-instructional and traditional training formats with EMR children.

Twelve mentally retarded children were taught anticipation and paraphrase strategies imbedded in either a self-instructional format that provided strategy initiation and modification routines or a traditional didactic training format: six children in a control condition received no explicit strategy instructions. Maintenance tests were administered 1 and 3 weeks following three training sessions; generalization tests were given in the afternoon of each training and maintenance session. Although no differences were found for self-instructional vs. traditional training formats, both conditions were superior to the control condition on the maintenance tests. Strategy generalization did not occur during training or short-term maintenance. On the final generalization test, however, significant improvements in recall accuracy were noted for both format conditions. In the self-instructional condition, several children successfully generalized the strategies during the early phases of training to facilitate gist recall.

Child↗
PubMed1997

Intact and impaired conceptual memory processes in amnesia.

To examine the status of conceptual memory processes in amnesia, a conceptual memory task with implicit or explicit task instructions was given to amnesic and control groups. After studying a list of category exemplars, participants saw category labels and were asked to generate as many exemplars as possible (an implicit memory task) or to generate exemplars that had been in the prior study list (an explicit memory task). After incidental deep or shallow encoding of exemplars, amnesic patients showed normal implicit memory performance (priming), a normal levels-of-processing effect on priming, and impaired explicit memory performance. After intentional encoding of exemplars, amnesic patients showed impaired implicit and explicit memory performance. Results suggest that although amnesic patients can show impairments on implicit and explicit conceptual memory tasks, their deficit does not generalize to all conceptual memory tasks.

Adult↗