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PubMed2005

Abnormal patterns of maternal behavior in a genetic animal model of depression.

The Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) model is considered a genetic animal model of depression. Among other characteristics, FSL rats express stress-induced anhedonia and an abnormal dopaminergic system. Our hypothesis was that FSL rats would show abnormal maternal behaviors, especially reduced motivation to reach and care for pups and reduced licking and non-nutritive contact, based on their anhedonic characteristics. Mother-infant interactions were assessed by time limited observations in FSL and Sprague-Dawley (SD) controls. In study 1, differences were found in consummatory behaviors: FSL dams compared to SD dams showed less licking and significant decrease in non-nutritive contact from the first to the third postpartum weeks. In addition, shorter duration of nursing postures was seen in FSL compared to SD dams in the first week postpartum, and this difference was significantly increased by the third week postpartum. In study 2, after exposure to acute swim stress, differences emerged in appetitive behaviors: latencies to reach and care for pups were longer in FSL dams compared to controls, suggesting a stress-induced motivational deficit in FSL dams. Possible explanations, especially regarding the FSL dams' reward system are discussed.

Analysis of Variance↗
PubMed1996

The Effects of Direct and Indirect Experience on Affective and Cognitive Responses and the Attitude-Behavior Relation

The present paper investigated the effects of direct and indirect experience on the production of affective and cognitive responses. In Study 1, we hypothesized that direct experience with an attitude object would tend to produce more affective reactions than indirect experience with the object and, alternatively, that indirect experience would produce more cognitive reactions than indirect experience with the object. To test this, participants were given either a direct or an indirect experience with a set of puzzles and then required to indicate their reactions to the puzzles. As predicted, direct experience produced more affective reactions and indirect experience produced more cognitive reactions. In Study 2, we hypothesized that attitudes produced after direct experience would predict consummatory behavior better than instrumental behavior and that attitudes produced after indirect experience would do the opposite. Again the results supported the hypothesis. In Study 3, we hypothesized that attitude accessibility mediates the relationships found in Study 2. That is, in a consummatory situation attitudes formed through direct experience are more assessable that attitudes formed through indirect experience. The results supported the hypothesis.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1975

Septal lesions in meadow voles and mongolian gerbils: consummatory and investigatory behavior.

In order to separate species specific from general effects of septal lesions on consummatory and investigatory behavior we chose to work with male Mongolian gerbils and meadow voles. These two rodent species are different in both the absolute amount of fluids consumed and reactivity to the palatability of the fluids presented in a single tube. Septal lesions did not elevate water consumption of either species. Septal lesioned gerbils tended to consume more sucrose, and septal voles clearly did drink more sucrose than their control counterparts. But only lesioned voles suppressed intake below control levels when presented with quinine. Exploratory behavior, which was measured only in gerbils, was also altered by septal lesions. Measurement of testosterone, seminal vesicles, and ventral marking glands (gerbils only) indicated that septal lesions alter hormonal systems in at least this species. The importance of comparative investigations in elucidating the general function of brain structures was discussed.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Behavioral consequences of dietary vitamin deficiency in young and middle-aged rats.

The behavioral correlates of vitamin A and B 6 dietary deficiency in young adult rats (Experiment 1) and middle-aged, retired breeder rats (Experiment 2) were examined. Male and female rats received either vitamin A deficient, vitamin B6 deficient, or normal control diets for two and a half months. Body weight, eating, and drinking of water and adulterated fluids were monitored. Pyridoxine deficiency generally had greater effects on consummatory behavior and weight gain than vitamin A deficiency, but this effect was influenced by the rats' age and sex. Wheel running, (Experiment 1), increased above control levels in both the vitamin delete groups. Vitamin A and B 6 deplete diets may affect behavior before an animal displays classical physical signs. Furthermore, such behavioral changes are not restricted to young, rapidly growing male rats; instead, their character is influenced by both the sex and age of the animal.

Age Factors↗
PubMed1981

Stereoselective effects of opiate agonists and antagonists on ingestive behavior in rats.

In male Sprague Dawley rats, the (-)-isomer of the opiate antagonist GPA 1843 (beta-9-methyl-5-phenyl-2-allyl-2'-hydroxy-6, 7-benzomorphan) produced dose-related decreases in nocturnal feeding and of hyperphagias induced by 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2-DG; 400 mg/kg) and 24 hr food deprivation (FD). The hyperphagia induced by insulin (10 U/kg) was not significantly decreased by GPA 1843. In contrast, comparable doses of the (+)-stereoisomer, GPA 1847, had no effect on nocturnal, 2-DG or FD hyperphagia. In addition, hyperphagia and hyperdipsia were observed following administration of the opiate agonist levorphanol, but not its stereoisomer, dextrorphan. Thus, the effects of these agents on consummatory behavior are mediated by a stereospecific interaction with opiate receptors, which further indicates that endogenous opiate peptides are involved in the expression of these opiate-related hyperphagias.

Animals↗
PubMed1989

Rats (Rattus norvegicus) selectively bred to differ in avoidance behavior also differ in response to novelty stress, in glycemic conditioning, and in reward contrast.

The behavior of the Syracuse high avoidance (SHA) and Syracuse low avoidance (SLA) rats, selectively bred by Brush (F. R. Brush, J. C. Froehlich, & P. Sakellaris, 1979, Behavior Genetics, 9, 309-316) to differ in avoidance behavior, was examined in several different tasks. The SLA rats showed a greater elevation in plasma glucose when exposed to a novel environment; after 7 days of exposure to this environment there was evidence of habituation in the SHA rats but not in the SLA rats; the SHA rats showed a hyperglycemic conditioned response in a glycemic conditioning procedure, the SLA rats showed no evidence of conditioning but had higher overall levels of plasma glucose; both strains showed reliable successive negative contrast effects in consummatory behavior when shifted from 32 to 4% sucrose, but the contrast was larger in the SLA rats; the administration of chlordiazepoxide eliminated negative contrast in the SLA rats but had no effect on contrast in the SHA rats; and the SLA rats were reliably heavier than the SHA rats. The behavioral differences were considered in the context of differences in emotional reactivity between the two strains.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Behavioral indices of neurotoxicity: what can be measured?

The ability to identify and characterize the potential neurotoxicity of chemicals is an important and necessary function of various regulatory agencies. Behavioral assessments of toxicity may be important because of their relative sensitivity to some chemicals, their generally noninvasive characteristics, and their ability to measure toxicity in organ systems other than the nervous system. Behavioral tests can be classified by several criteria including traditional experimental definitions, their desired experimental usage, the neurobehavioral functions they are designed to assess, and the strategy chosen for their use in the evaluation of chemicals. Examples of neurobehavioral tests used to evaluate the effects of chemicals for toxicity include those that evaluate motor (spontaneous motor activity, motor coordination, weakness, abnormal movement or posture, tremor, and on-going performance), sensory (screening, reflex modification, and instrumental conditioning), learning/memory (nonassociative and associative), instrumental performance (schedules of reinforcement), and naturally occurring responses (consummatory behaviors). Behavioral procedures have also been utilized in select ways in toxicological research to detect latent damage, to study mechanisms of action, and to screen for functional dysfunction following exposure during development. Many considerations, such as the behavioral mechanism of action, definition of an adverse effect, problem of functional reserve, and several statistical questions, should be taken into account in the use and interpretation of data obtained from behavioral tests. During the last decade, there have been numerous recommendations from groups within the United States and, most recently, the World Health Organization, suggesting that systematic observational assessments may be appropriate when carried out within already existing toxicological protocols.

Animals↗
PubMed1991

Network properties of memory trace formation in the hippocampus.

Based on the experimental evidence from his laboratory and the relevant literature the Author outlines a formal model of memory trace formation. During exploratory (theta) behaviors the neocortical information is transmitted to the hippocampus via the fast-firing granule cells which may induce a weak and transient heterosynaptic potentiation in a subgroup of CA3 pyramidal cells. The weakly potentiated CA3 neurons will then initiate population bursts upon the termination of exploratory activity (sharp wave state). It is assumed that recurrent excitation during the population burst is strongest on those cells which initiated the population event. It is suggested that the strong excitatory drive brought about by the sharp wave-concurrent population bursts during consummatory behaviors, immobility, and slow wave sleep may be sufficient for the induction of long-term synaptic modification in the initiator neurons of the CA3 region and in their targets in CA1. In this two-stage model both exploratory (theta) and sharp wave states of the hippocampus are essential and any interference that might modify the structure of the population bursts (e.g., epileptic spikes) are detrimental to memory trace formation.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed1978

ACTH and ACTH4-10 modification of neophobia and taste aversion responses in the rat.

A series of experiments assessed the effects of ACTH and the ACTH analogue ACTH4-10 on drinking in conditioned taste aversion and neophobic situations. Both substances delayed the extinction of a conditioned taste aversion established by a single pairing of lithium chloride with milk (Experiment 1). However, in this situation, the ACTH parent peptide was more potent behaviorally. Administration of ACTH suppressed milk consumption in animals with no toxicosis experience (Experiment 2). This effect was apparently not due to the conditioning of a taste aversion (Experiment 3) with ACTH serving as a weak aversive unconditioned stimulus. Administration of exogenous ACTH (Experiment 4) or ACTH4-10 (Experiment 5) did not enhance neophobia; however, repeated injections of ACTH suppressed drinking. This ACTH suppression was related to the familiarity/novelty of the subtance being consumed. The neophobic response to milk eas no accompanied by pituitary-adrenal activation (Experiment 6). Both neophobic and conditioned taste aversion situation appear to be useful for assessing peptide effects on consummatory behavior.

Adrenocorticotropic Hormone↗
PubMed1990

Serotonergic involvement in conflict behaviour.

The effects of different manipulations of brain serotonergic (5-HT) systems were investigated in Montgomery's conflict test, an animal anxiety model based on the animal's inborn urge to explore a new environment and its simultaneous fear of elevated, open spaces. The putative 5-HT1A receptor agonists buspirone, gepirone, ipsapirone and 8-OH-DPAT all produced anxiolytic-like effects in narrow low dose-ranges, while in higher doses the behavior returned towards that seen in controls and, after the highest doses of buspirone and gepirone, was suppressed below that of controls. The 5-HT precursor L-5-HTP produced a biphasic dose-response curve. In a single low dose an anxiolytic-like action was obtained, while in the highest dose a clear-cut anxiogenic-like action was observed. The 5-HT depleting agents parachlorophenylalanine (PCPA) and 5,7-dihydroxytryptamine (5,7-DHT) both produced anxiolytic-like effects. Thus, anxiolytic-like and anxiogenic-like effects after various manipulations of brain 5-HT neurotransmission can be obtained also in an animal anxiety model involving neither consummatory behavior nor punishment. The anxiolytic-like effects after all these treatments are suggested to be due to decreased brain 5-HT neurotransmission, while the anxiogenic-like effect obtained after the highest dose of L-5-HTP is suggested to derive from increased 5-HT neurotransmission. Furthermore, using a modified Vogel's conflict model it was investigated whether the anxiolytic-like effects obtained after PCPA and 5,7-DHT involve the GABAA/benzodiazepine (BDZ) chloride ionophore receptor complex. Both the BDZ receptor antagonist flumazenil and the GABAA receptor antagonist bicuculline counteracted the PCPA induced anticonflict effect in doses which did not affect the behavior per se.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Changes in self-stimulation at stimulation-bound eating and drinking sites in the lateral hypothalamus during food or water deprivation, glucoprivation, and intracellular or extracellular dehydration.

These studies were designed to examine the effects of "hunger" induced by food deprivation, 2-deoxy-D-glucose (200 mg/kg), or insulin (2 U/kg) and "thirst" induced by water deprivation, sodium chloride (4 M), or polyethylene glycol (5 ml of 30% w/w) on lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation in 40 male Long-Evans rats. Changes in self-stimulation were evaluated at electrodes that produced stimulation-bound eating and/or drinking or neither behavior. Daily 30-min test sessions consisted of three 5-min periods of self-stimulation alternated with three 5-min periods when bar presses resulted in a 5-s time-out from experimenter-delivered stimulation (stimulation escape). Food deprivation significantly increased self-stimulation; insulin, 2-deoxy-D-glucose, and sodium chloride significantly suppressed self-stimulation; water deprivation mildly inhibited self-stimulation; and polyethylene glycol had no effect. This pattern of findings was noted at electrodes that did and those that did not elicit eating and/or drinking. These findings argue against the hypothesis that the magnitude of lateral hypothalamic self-stimulation is differentially and predictably controlled by specific drive mechanisms indexed by the consummatory behaviors also elicited by the stimulation.

Animals↗
PubMed2001

Sex differences in the subjective and reinforcing effects of visual and olfactory cigarette smoke stimuli.

Although nicotine intake clearly reinforces cigarette smoking behavior, non-nicotine smoke stimuli may become conditioned reinforcers of smoking. In Study 1, we compared the acute subjective and reinforcing effects of cigarette smoking in men and women under two conditions: blockade of visual and olfactory/taste smoke stimuli vs. no blockade. Subjective hedonic ratings of 'like puffs' and 'satisfying', but not 'strength', 'high in nicotine', or CO boost, were significantly reduced under the blockade vs. no blockade conditions. During subsequent ad lib puffing, significantly fewer puffs were self-administered under the blockade condition, particularly among women. In Study 2, we examined the influences of these stimuli separately and found that olfactory/taste stimuli, but not visual stimuli, reduced hedonic ratings and puff self-administration in women but not in men. In Study 3, procedures similar to those in Study 1 were used to examine whether this sex difference in responses to conditioned stimuli generalizes to a non-drug consummatory behavior, eating (pizza). However, hedonic ratings and ad lib consumption of pizza were substantially reduced in both men and women following blockade of visual and olfactory/taste food stimuli. These results indicate that the presumably conditioned stimuli of olfactory/taste from cigarette smoke may influence subjective hedonic ratings and reinforcement from smoking more in women than in men. However, this sex difference may not generalize beyond smoking or other drug reinforcement.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Increases in sucrose consumption, but not ethanol consumption, following ICV NPY administration.

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is a centrally acting neuromodulator that influences both consummatory behaviors and anxiety. NPY's effects on feeding are primarily regulated through Y5 receptors in hypothalamic sites, whereas NPY-induced anxiolysis appears to be mediated by Y1 receptors in the amygdala. Recently, NPY has been postulated to play a role in the regulation of ethanol consumption. The present study assessed the influence of intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of NPY on the consumption of 10% ethanol or 2% sucrose in rats. Male Wistar rats were trained to self-administer 10% ethanol using the sucrose-substitution procedure and then implanted with an intracerebroventricular (ICV) cannula. The effects of NPY (0-15 microg) on ethanol consumption and sucrose consumption were then examined. ICV NPY infusion had no significant effects on the consumption of 10% ethanol, however, NPY significantly increased the consumption of 2% sucrose, [F(1, 11) = 6.18, p = 0.03]. These data suggest that ethanol intake and sucrose intake are differentially regulated by NPY. It is hypothesized that ICV infusion of NPY may be affecting both Y1 and Y5 receptors producing increased consummatory drive and anxiolysis, two factors that have opposing effects on subsequent ethanol consumption. Therefore, additional studies including site specific injection of NPY will be necessary to provide further insight into the role of NPY on ethanol consumption.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1997

Alcohol intake of P rats is regulated by muscarinic receptors in the pedunculopontine nucleus and VTA.

Experiments were conducted to determine whether muscarinic receptors within the pedunculopontine nucleus (PPN) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are involved in regulating ethanol drinking behavior in the alcohol-preferring P line of rats. Female P rats were given limited access (2 h/day) to 10% (v/v) ethanol and 0.0125% (g/100 ml) saccharin solutions. Food was available ad libitum. Cholinergic agents were microinjected unilaterally into the PPN or VTA immediately prior to ethanol access. Intra-PPN carbachol (1-4 microg/0.5 microl), which can inhibit cholinergic neuronal activity within the PPN, decreased ethanol (70% decrease at the highest dose; p < 0.05) and saccharin (90% decrease at the highest dose; p < 0.05) intake in a dose-dependent manner within the first 30 min. Intra-PPN scopolamine (5-15 microg/0.5 microl), which can stimulate cholinergic neuronal activity within the PPN, decreased ethanol intake in a dose-dependent manner within the first 30 min (65% decrease at the highest dose; p < 0.05) without reducing saccharin intake. Intra-VTA methylscopolamine (1-10 microg/0.5 microl), a muscarinic antagonist, significantly (p < 0.05) reduced ethanol (60% decrease at the highest dose) and saccharin (50% decrease at the highest dose) intakes during the 2-h access period. Intra-VTA carbachol, a cholinergic agonist (1 and 2 microg/0.5 microl) decreased ethanol consumption in a dose-dependent manner within the first 60 min (50% decrease at the highest dose) without reducing saccharin intake. Overall, these results support an involvement of the cholinergic PPN-VTA system in regulating alcohol drinking and general consummatory behaviors of the P line of rats.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1999

Comparison of the effects of the selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors fluoxetine, paroxetine, citalopram and fluvoxamine in alcohol-preferring cAA rats.

Clinical studies indicate that selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs) may decrease alcohol intake and craving in particular subgroups of alcoholics. The aim of the present study was to compare the behavioral profile of various SSRIs in alcohol-preferring cAA rats, a genetic model of alcoholism. The effects of acute IP administration of fluoxetine (doses in mg/kg 1-10), citalopram (3-30), fluvoxamine (3-30) and paroxetine (1-10) on ethanol (EtOH) intake and preference, as well as food and total fluid intake, were determined in a 12-h access, water vs. 10% v/v EtOH two-bottle choice paradigm. Each compound reduced EtOH intake [Minimal Effective Doses (MEDs) 5, 10, 30 and 1 mg/kg for fluoxetine, citalopram, fluvoxamine, and paroxetine, respectively]. The degree of selectivity, that is, the extent to which reductions in EtOH intake could be separated from reductions in food and/or total fluid intake varied across the compounds. Thus, whereas EtOH intake was more markedly affected than food intake by fluoxetine, both parameters were equally affected by citalopram, and food intake was more markedly affected than EtOH intake by fluvoxamine and paroxetine. The anti-alcohol effect also differed with respect to specificity, that is, the degree to which effects on EtOH intake coincided with effects on EtOH preference. Whereas fluoxetine showed the highest level of specificity, followed by citalopram and fluvoxamine, the effect of paroxetine was nonspecific. The observed variation in the degree of selectivity and specificity of the anti-alcohol effect of SSRIs suggests that reductions in EtOH intake are not merely a consequence of a general suppressive effect on consummatory behavior. It is hypothesized that differences between the behavioral profiles of these compounds reflect a differential involvement of 5-HT receptor subtypes.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed2004

Taste-aversion-prone (TAP) rats and taste-aversion-resistant (TAR) rats differ in ethanol self-administration, but not in ethanol clearance or general consumption.

Taste-aversion (TA)-prone (TAP) rats and TA-resistant (TAR) rats have been developed by means of bidirectional selective breeding on the basis of their behavioral responses to a TA conditioning paradigm. The TA conditioning involved the pairing of an emetic-class agent (cyclophosphamide) with a novel saccharin solution as the conditioned stimulus. Despite the absence of ethanol in the selective breeding process, these rat lines differ widely in ethanol self-administration. In the current study, blood alcohol concentrations (BACs) were determined after 9 days of limited (2 h per day) access to a simultaneous, two-bottle choice of a 10% ethanol in water solution [volume/volume (vol./vol.)] or plain water. The BACs correlated highly with ethanol intake among TAR rats, but an insufficient number of TAP rats yielded measurable BACs to make the same comparison within this rat line. The same rats were subsequently exposed to 24-h access of a two-bottle choice (10% ethanol or plain water) for 8 days. Ethanol consumption during the 24-h access period correlated highly with that seen during limited access. Subsequent TA conditioning with these rats yielded line-typical differences in saccharin preferences. In a separate group of rats, ethanol clearance was determined by measuring BACs at 1, 4, and 7 h after injection of a 2.5-g/kg dose of ethanol. Ethanol clearance was not different between the two lines. Furthermore, the lines did not differ with respect to food and water consumption. Therefore, the TAP rat-TAR rat differences in ethanol consumption cannot be attributed to line differences in ethanol metabolism or in general consummatory behavior. The findings support our contention that the line differences in ethanol consumption are mediated by differences in TA-related mechanisms. The findings are discussed with respect to genetically based differences in the subjective experience of ethanol.

Alcohol Drinking↗
PubMed1998

Effects of ethanol on Pavlovian autoshaping in rats.

Approach responses, consummatory behaviors, and directed motor responses maintained by food reward resemble autoshaping CRs and are increased by lower doses of ethanol. This study evaluated the effects of presession i.p. injections of ethanol doses (0.00, 0.25, 0.50, 0.70. or 1.00 g/kg) on the acquisition of lever-press autoshaping CR performance in groups of male Long-Evans hooded rats. Paired groups received 15 daily sessions of Pavlovian autoshaping procedures, wherein the insertion of a retractable lever for 5 s (CS) was followed by the response-independent presentation of food (US). Ethanol facilitated lever-press autoshaping CR acquisition, as revealed by dose-related increases in the number of trials on which CRs were performed. The form of the dose-effect curve was inverted U-shaped with maximal responding induced during sessions 1-5 by the 0.70 g/kg ethanol dose. A similar dose-effect curve was observed during sessions 11-15, revealing that the effects of ethanol on autoshaping CR performance were relatively stable. A pseudoconditioning control group injected presession with 0.50 g/kg ethanol received training wherein the food US was presented randomly with respect to the lever CS. Few lever-presses were performed by the Random 0.50 group, indicating that ethanol's effects on autoshaping CR acquisition and maintenance observed in the Paired 0.50 group were not due to its psychomotor activating effects. A non-injection control group performed more autoshaping CRs than did the control group injected presession with saline, indicating that daily presession i.p. injections per se suppress autoshaping CR performance. Results reveal that low doses of ethanol enhance Pavlovian conditioning of directed motor and consummatory-like responding maintained by food reward. Implications for autoshaping accounts of impulsivity and drug abuse are considered.

Animals↗
PubMed1975

Effect of postnatal litter size on adult aggression in the laboratory mouse.

Growth, emotionality, food competition, and aggression were examined in mice nursed in litters of 3 or 9 and reared in isolation until testing. Animals from large litters were lighter at weaning and in adulthood and were more emotional in the open field than subjects from small litters. They did not win more food competition tests than subjects from small litters although their consummatory behavior during food competition tests was greater. Subjects from large litters were more aggressive in initial encounters, but over repeated encounters became more submissive. In a 2nd open-field test, emotionality of large-litter subjects was reduced more than that of subjects from small litters. When later placed in group-living cages, subjects from small litters sustained less long term physical assault than subjects from large litters. High correlations were found between the 4 measures of brief aggression.

Aggression↗