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PubMed1991

Tissue protein synthesis in lactating and dry goats.

Intravenous infusion of L-[3H]phenylalanine (Phe) was carried out for 8 h in dry, non-pregnant and lactating dairy goats. Nitrogen balance was positive in the dry group and negative in the lactating group. Whole-body Phe flux was 50% greater in lactating goats (P less than 0.01). Fractional synthesis rates (Ks) of tissue proteins were estimated from plasma- (Ksp) and tissue- (Ksh) specific radioactivities of Phe. In lactating goats, Ksp for mammary gland, duodenum and diaphragm was increased (P less than 0.05). Ksp also tended to increase in liver, kidney and rumen (P less than 0.08) of lactating goats, but was not different in uterus, spleen, caecum or heart. Values of Ksh were higher than Ksp; however, these measures agreed qualitatively. When absolute rates of protein synthesis were calculated, an increased contribution of mammary and visceral organs was seen in lactating goats. Ks and absolute rates of protein synthesis of hind-limb skin were less in lactating goats (P less than 0.05). A decreased proportion of skeletal muscle (P less than 0.05). Decreased rates of muscle and skin protein synthesis would appear to participate in alterations of protein metabolism, permitting lactation to occur at the expense of body reserves.

Animals↗
PubMed2003

Vitamin A deficiency in poor, urban, lactating women in Bangladesh: factors influencing vitamin A status.

AIMS: To investigate the prevalence of vitamin A deficiency among lactating women in a poor urban population of Bangladesh, and to examine the relationship between various factors and vitamin A status. DESIGN: Cross-sectional study. SETTING: Maternal and child health clinic in Dhaka City, Bangladesh. SUBJECTS AND METHODS: A total of 120 lactating women aged 17-37 years were randomly selected from women who attended a local maternal and child health clinic in Dhaka City for immunisation of their children. Various socio-economic, personal characteristics, dietary intakes of vitamin A and anthropometric data were collected. Serum retinol (vitamin A) concentration was determined as a measure of vitamin A status. RESULTS: Of the subjects, 37% had low serum vitamin A levels (<30 microg x dl-1), with 13.3% having sub-clinical vitamin A deficiency (<20 microg x dl-1). Eighty-seven per cent had vitamin A intakes below the recommended dietary allowance. The lactating women who were either illiterate or received only informal education had significantly lower serum vitamin A levels compared with those who received formal education. The women whose husbands received formal education had significantly higher serum vitamin A levels than those whose husbands were either illiterate or received only informal education. The serum vitamin A levels of women in households with poor sanitation/latrine practice were significantly lower than those of women in households with good sanitation/latrine practice. The women with one child had significantly lower serum vitamin A levels than those with two or more children. Women with a lactation period of 6 months or more had significantly lower serum vitamin A levels than women with a lactation period of less than 6 months. The women who consumed less than the median vitamin A intake (274.8 microg day-1) had significantly lower serum vitamin A levels than those who consumed more than the median vitamin A intake. By multiple regression analysis, education level of the women, number of living children, duration of lactation and dietary intake of vitamin A were found to have significant independent relationships with serum vitamin A. The overall F-ratio (6.8) was highly significant the adjusted R2 was 0.16 (multiple ). CONCLUSION: A significant proportion of poor, urban, lactating women in Bangladesh have vitamin A deficiency. Among the various factors, education level of the women, number of living children, duration of lactation and dietary intake of vitamin A appear to be important in influencing the vitamin A status of these women.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Blood lactate response and critical speed in swimmers aged 10-12 years of different standards.

It has previously been shown that measurement of the critical speed is a non-invasive method of estimating the blood lactate response during exercise. However, its validity in children has yet to be demonstrated. The aims of this study were: (1) to verify if the critical speed determined in accordance with the protocol of Wakayoshi et al. is a non-invasive means of estimating the swimming speed equivalent to a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) in children aged 10-12 years; and (2) to establish whether standard of performance has an effect on its determination. Sixteen swimmers were divided into two groups: beginners and trained. They initially completed a protocol for determination of speed equivalent to a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1). Later, during training sessions, maximum efforts were swum over distances of 50, 100 and 200 m for the calculation of the critical speed. The speeds equivalent to a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) (beginners = 0.82 +/- 0.09 m x s(-1), trained = 1.19 +/- 0.11 m x s(-1); mean +/- s) were significantly faster than the critical speeds (beginners = 0.78 +/- 0.25 m x s(-1), trained = 1.08 +/- 0.04 m x s(-1)) in both groups. There was a high correlation between speed at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) and the critical speed for the beginners (r= 0.96, P < 0.001), but not for the trained group (r= 0.60, P> 0.05). The blood lactate concentration corresponding to the critical speed was 2.7 +/- 1.1 and 3.1 +/- 0.4 mmol x l(-1) for the beginners and trained group respectively. The percent difference between speed at a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) and the critical speed was not significantly different between the two groups. At all distances studied, swimming performance was significantly faster in the trained group. Our results suggest that the critical speed underestimates swimming intensity corresponding to a blood lactate concentration of 4 mmol x l(-1) in children aged 10-12 years and that standard of performance does not affect the determination of the critical speed.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Direct and indirect calorimetry of lactate oxidation: implications for whole-body energy expenditure.

Whole-body energy expenditure for heavy/severe exercise is currently accounted for by either: (1) anaerobic and oxygen uptake measures during exercise where recovery energy expenditure is omitted; or (2) oxygen uptake during, and an EPOC (excess post-exercise oxygen consumption), measure following exercise where substrate level phosphorylation during exercise is considered part of EPOC. Simultaneous direct/indirect calorimetry enabled us to determine if a thermodynamic reversal (i.e. heat consumption) takes place as the highly exothermic pyruvate to lactate reaction proceeds in the opposite direction. Reversibility implies that oxygen uptake (e.g. EPOC) can indeed account for rapid glycolytic ATP production regardless if lactate is formed or not (e.g. 1.2 g glucose catabolism = 20.9 kJ x l O2(-1)). Cultured hybrid cells and mouse cardiac muscle fibres were utilized in simultaneous calorimetry and respirometry experiments where pyruvate or lactate was predominantly oxidized. The calorimetric to respiratory ratio was determined using heat flux (pW x cell(-1)) and oxygen flux (pmol x s(-1) cell(-1)) measures. Ten cell experiments gave calorimetric to respiratory ratios that showed no statistical difference (P= 0.97) whether cells respired predominantly on lactate (-516+/-53 kJ x mol O2(-1)) or pyruvate (- 517+/-89 kJ x mol O2(-1)). In three cardiac preparations, the calorimetric to respiratory ratio was -502+/-15 kJ x mol O2(-1) for lactate and -506+/-47 kJ x mol O2(-1) for pyruvate, again a non-significant difference (P= 0.91). Heat consumption did not occur during lactate oxidation. These results suggest that rapid glycolytic ATP and lactate production, and lactate oxidation, are both independently associated with heat production and thus represent separate and additive components to the measurement of total energy expenditure for exercise and recovery.

Calorimetry↗
PubMed2001

Elevated lactate levels in hospitalized persons with HIV infection.

Lactic acidosis has been described in persons with HIV infection particularly in association with the use of nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTIs). Little is known about the epidemiology of this problem. We reviewed the records of all HIV-infected adults with elevated lactate levels admitted to Barnes-Jewish hospital from 1996 to 1998. There were 37 patients identified with elevated lactate levels. The annual rate of elevated lactate levels was 22.6, 33.9, and 30.8 per 1,000 admissions in 1996, 1997, and 1998, respectively. The median age of the patients was 40.4 years; median CD4(+) count was 148 cells/mm(3); and the median HIV-1 RNA level was 4,401 copies/ml. The median lactate level was 4.5 mmol/liter (range, 2.2-19 mmol/liter). Twenty-nine patients (78%) had elevated lactate levels at admission. Elevated lactate levels were associated with sepsis (48.7%), pancreatitis (13.5%), liver failure (8.1%), multiorgan failure (8.1%), and other conditions. Five patients had lactic acidosis associated with the use of antiretroviral medications; one patient with unexplained lactic acidosis and four patients with pancreatitis. The mortality rate was 45.9% (17/37). Higher lactate levels were associated with increased mortality. In conclusion, elevated lactate levels were uncommon but not rare in hospitalized patients with HIV infection. Sepsis was the most commonly associated condition and antiretroviral medications were the second most frequently associated factor. There was no significant increase in the annual rate of lactic acidosis during this 3-year period.

Acidosis, Lactic↗
PubMed1982

Mineral homeostasis during lactation- relationship to serum 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D, 25-hydroxyvitamin D, parathyroid hormone and calcitonin.

During lactation maternal losses of calcium and phosphorus through human milk average 220 to 340 and 110 to 170 mg/day, respectively. The present study reports maternal serum concentrations of vitamin D metabolites, parathyroid hormone, calcitonin, calcium, magnesium, and phosphorus during the first 6 months of lactation. Serum calcium and magnesium concentrations increased during the first 6 months of lactation. Serum 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D was increased at 6 months of lactation compared to values in nonpregnant nonlactating controls. During this same period, serum parathyroid hormone decreased slightly and serum calcitonin remained unchanged. Our data do not support the observation that lactation represents a state of physiological hyperparathyroidism. On the contrary, our results suggest that lactating women are able to adequately compensate for the losses of calcium and phosphorus during the early months of lactation, although increased serum 1,25-(OH)2 vitamin D concentrations may be necessary to maintain calcium homeostasis with lactation beyond 6 months.

Calcifediol↗
PubMed1987

Malnutrition during the reproductive cycle: effects on galactopoietic hormones and lactational performance in the rat.

To examine the effects of malnutrition imposed at various stages of the reproductive cycle on galactopoietic hormones and lactational performance, rats were fed 50% of the intake of ad libitum-fed controls either before and during pregnancy (refed), during lactation only (acutely restricted), or throughout the experimental period (chronically restricted). Milk yield and litter weight at day 14 of lactation were compromised in the groups restricted during lactation. Dietary restriction during lactation had consistent negative effects on milk nutrient and energy contents. Plasma and milk corticosterone values were twice as high in the groups restricted during lactation as in the controls. Corticosterone but not prolactin values were correlated with many measures of lactational performance. These results suggest that the increase in corticosterone values may be one mechanism by which malnutrition exerts its effects on lactational performance.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Zinc absorption in women during pregnancy and lactation: a longitudinal study.

Zinc is essential for normal fetal growth and development and for milk production during lactation. The metabolic adjustments made in zinc utilization to meet these needs have not been described. The purpose of this study was to determine whether fractional zinc absorption (FZA) is altered during pregnancy and lactation and, if so, to determine whether the change is related to maternal zinc status, specifically, concentrations of zinc in plasma, erythrocytes, urine, and breast milk and dietary zinc intake. Thirteen women were studied at five time points: once preconception; at 8-10, 24-26, and 34-36 wk gestation; and once while they were lactating 7-9 wk postpartum. Zinc intake increased by 35 mumol/d (2.3 mg/d) from preconception to 34-36 wk (P = 0.04); it tended to decrease (P > 0.05) during lactation but did not return to the preconception level. The amount of zinc in breast milk averaged 2.0 mg/d at the lactation time point. FZA measured from urinary enrichments of two stable isotopes of zinc increased from 14% preconception to 25% during lactation (P = 0.023) but the increase to 19% at 34-36 wk gestation was not significant. No increase in FZA occurred in four women who took iron supplements during lactation. FZA was negatively correlated with plasma zinc concentration at 34-36 wk gestation and with urinary zinc excretion at all time points. The nearly twofold increase in zinc absorption during lactation was presumably in response to the demand for zinc to synthesize breast milk.

Adult↗
PubMed1994

Modulation of sodium current by lactate in guinea pig ventricular myocytes.

OBJECTIVE: The aim was to elucidate whether or not lactate modifies the fast sodium current (INa) in cardiac cells. METHODS: A tight seal whole cell clamp technique was used to record the action potentials and INa in single ventricular cells from the guinea pig heart. RESULTS: In voltage clamp experiments, superfusion with 20 mM lactate shifted both the normalised conductance (gNa)-voltage relationship and the channel availability curve toward hyperpolarisation by approximately 4 mV, but did not affect the maximum conductance (gNa,max). In the test solution containing only CaCl2 as the main divalent component, 20 mM lactate reduced the ionised calcium concentration from 1.02 to 0.84 mM. When the calcium concentration was kept constant by the addition of CaCl2 into the lactate containing solution the lactate effect was nullified. However, a change in the calcium concentration from 1.0 to 0.84 mM without lactate induced a 4 mV negative shift of the channel availability curve. Current clamp experiments in Tyrode solution showed that 20 mM lactate shifted the threshold for the action potential upstroke by 2.5-3 mV, in accordance with the voltage clamp experiments. CONCLUSIONS: Lactate modifies INa of ventricular myocytes by shifting its kinetics toward hyperpolarisation. This shift seems to be caused exclusively by a decrease in the ionised divalent cation concentrations and a resultant change in the negative surface charge of the sarcolemma.

Action Potentials↗
PubMed2001

Resumption of ovarian function during lactational amenorrhoea in breastfeeding women with polycystic ovarian syndrome: metabolic aspects.

BACKGROUND: Polycystic ovarian syndrome (PCOS) is a common endocrine-metabolic disorder in women, a high percentage of whom exhibit peripheral insulin resistance. After delivery, in normal women, lactation imposes a metabolic adaptation, the impact of which on the insulin resistance of PCOS patients is not known. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of lactation on insulin resistance, glucose and insulin metabolism, and sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) and insulin-like growth factor binding protein-1 (IGFBP)-1 concentrations in fully breast-feeding normal and PCOS women during the postpartum period (lactational amenorrhoea) and also after weaning. METHODS: Twelve lactating PCOS (LPCOS) women and six normal lactating (NL) women of similar age and body mass index (BMI) were selected for the study. At the 4th and the 8th week postpartum (pp), and 8 weeks after weaning, a 2 h, 75 g oral glucose tolerance test (oGGT) was performed, followed by an insulin tolerance test 2 days later. For the oGGT, glucose and insulin were measured in each sample and SHBG and IGFBP-1 were determined in the fasting sample. RESULTS: During lactation, fasting insulin levels were similar in both groups. In LPCOS women 2 h insulin concentrations were significantly higher, and SHBG and IGFBP-1 concentrations were significantly lower, than those observed in NL women. In both groups, insulin sensitivity evaluated by the insulin tolerance test was not modified. After weaning, in LPCOS women, SHBG and IGFBP-1 concentrations remained lower and insulin concentrations remained higher than those observed in NL women ( P < 0.05 ). CONCLUSIONS: In PCOS women, insulin resistance is not modified during lactation. Lactation has a transitory beneficial effect on insulin levels and biological markers of insulin resistance.

Adult↗
PubMed1975

Evaluation of various protein sequences on the nutritional carry-over from gestation to lactation with first-litter sows.

First-litter sows and their progeny were used to evaluate the interaction effects of three gestation crude protein levels (9, 13, or 17%) and two lactation protein levels (12 or 18%) on sow reproduction and litter performance. Diets were formulated to contain the desired protein level by altering the ratio of corn and soybean meal. Daily rations of 1.82 kg were individually fed during gestation and were offered ad libitum to the sows by 7 days postpartum. Litters were equalized to eight pigs each by 1 week of age and held constant to weaning (28 days). Sows fed the 9% protein diet gained less during gestation than those fed the 13 or 17% protein diets. Progeny parturition data were similar for the three gestation protein levels. Sows fed the 18% protein lactation diet and their litters performed similarly in regards to feed intake and progeny performance regardless of previous gestation protein level, while those sows fed the 12% protein lactation diet had decreasing lactation weight losses, but increasing fed intakes and litter gains as the level of gestation protein increased from 9 to 17%. There were significant gestation by lactation protein level sequence interactions on sow feed intakes and litter gains, suggesting a nutritional carry-over effect from gestation to lactation. Sows fed the 17% protein gestation diet had the greatest tissue buffer while those fed the 9% protein gestation diet had the least. These results further demonstrate that dams fed a 9% protein gestation diet perform similarly to those fed higher gestation diets, if the lactation dietary protein level is adequate to meet the lactation amino acid requirements.

Amino Acids, Essential↗
PubMed1978

Effects of age, diet and lactation on lipogenesis in rat adipose, liver and mammary tissues.

Four diets varying in safflower oil content from zero to 20% were used in a study of interactions among diet and physiological state. Increasing fat in the diet did not alter food intakes but decreased digestibility coefficients. Increasing safflower oil intake did not alter milk fat content in lactating rats but increased relative amounts of unsaturated fatty acids in milk fat. In liver and perirenal adipose tissues from young male and non-lactating female rats, low fat diets increased rates of lipogenesis from glucose in vitro and specific activities of enzymes whose functions are closely associated with lipogenesis. This adaptive hyperlipogenic response was not evident or was less prominent in aged or lactating rats. In the case of lactating rats it appears that lactation produces a marked reduction in adipose lipogenesis when low fat diets are fed. Reduced glyceride glycerol synthesis in lactating as compared to non-lactating rat adipose coupled with reduced fatty acid synthesis and in increased lipolysis indicated a shift in adipose function in the direction of increased fat mobilization as would be supportive of lactation. Only minor diet effects upon mammary enzyme patterns and rates of in vitro lipogenesis were observed.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1984

Lactation increases the efficiency of energy utilization in rats.

The possibility that lactation increases the efficiency of energy use was investigated by comparing energy expenditure on activity and maintenance in virgin and lactating rats fed either ad libitum or restricted amounts of food. Energy expenditure was determined, by difference, in a nutrient balance study. Lactating rats fed ad libitum expended 34.9% less energy on activity and maintenance than did control animals. Of this change, 82% was specifically associated with lactation, but the remaining 18% was associated with the negative energy balance that occurred during lactation. Lactating rats fed restricted amounts of food expended less energy on activity and maintenance than did virgin rats fed at the same level of restriction, but this change was associated with increased negative energy balance and not specifically with lactation. These results indicate that the efficiency of energy use is increased substantially during lactation in the rat, regardless of the level of energy intake, and that mechanisms associated with negative energy balance play an important role in the change.

Adipose Tissue↗
PubMed1991

Mineral status of mice suckling early-, mid- and late-lactating foster dams.

We have demonstrated that the zinc (Zn) concentration of mouse milk declines significantly over the lactation period. Pups radiolabeled in utero with 65Zn were forward-fostered (FF) to nonradiolabeled dams at a later stage of lactation to study the effects of early milk deprivation. Other groups of radiolabeled pups were back-fostered at 5, 10 and 15 days of age to a nonradiolabeled dam who had just given birth; this provided additional colostrum during the suckling period. Litters fostered at birth to an unlabeled dam at d 0 of lactation were used as controls. Weight gain of FF litters decreased and signs of Zn deficiency increased as the foster dam's days of lactation increased. The Zn concentration of kidney, brain and plasma tended to decrease with increasing lactation days of the foster dam. Tibia Zn concentration declined progressively as the lactation days of the foster dam increased, and the concentration of calcium also was lower in all three groups of FF litters than in controls, indicating that bone calcification may have been impaired. Kinetic data proved to be a more sensitive index of Zn status than tissue Zn concentration. The biological half-life of whole-body 65Zn for FF suckling mice increased in a linear fashion with increasing lactation days of the foster dam; whole-body retention of 65Zn for back-fostered litters did not differ from that for controls. Brain, small intestine, kidney muscle, plasma and tibia of pups FF to late-lactating dams seemed to have greater retention of Zn than did controls. Thus, deprivation of early milk impaired growth and development of the mouse neonate despite some ability to conserve Zn.

Animals↗
PubMed1996

Rates of lipid metabolism in adipose tissue of pigs adapt to lactational state and dietary energy restriction.

To define better the role of metabolism in adipose tissue during gestation and lactation, adaptations to gestation, lactation and to decreased energy intakes were determined using pigs as a model. The effects of energy restriction and the interactions of restriction during both periods were tested by feeding one of two rations during gestation to provide either 19.3 or 25.1 MJ of metabolizable energy per day (ME/d) and adequate amino acids, vitamins and minerals. Pigs from each gestation treatment then consumed 27.7, 48.6, or 69.0 MJ of ME/d during lactation. Body weight and subcutaneous fat thickness were lower in the energy-restricted groups. Litter growth was slower only in the group receiving the lowest energy in gestation and lactation. During gestation, fatty acid synthesis, as measured in in vitro tissue incubations, was lower in subcutaneous adipose tissue of pigs consuming 19.3 compared with 25.1 MJ of ME/d. In pigs fed the highest energy, rates of lipogenesis and esterification were faster after parturition. Feeding 48.6 or 27.7 MJ of ME/d reduced lipogenesis during lactation by approximately 75 and 90% and rates of esterification by 35 and 60%, respectively, compared with controls fed 69.0 MJ of ME/d. Rates of lipid synthesis at d 7 of lactation were higher than at d 23. Lipolysis was approximately twofold higher due to energy restriction. Lactation alone did not alter lipolysis compared with during gestation. The first-committed step of glucose conversion to fatty acids was decreased in a manner sensitive to energy restriction. Recycling of fatty acids was maintained at a significant rate regardless of energy intake. Lipid metabolism in adipose tissue of pigs during lactation is regulated in a manner similar to that observed in humans.

Adaptation, Physiological↗
PubMed2005

D-lactate in human and ruminant metabolism.

D-lactate is normally present in the blood of mammals at nanomolar concentrations due to methylglyoxal metabolism; millimolar d-lactate concentrations can arise due to excess gastrointestinal microbial production. Grain overload in ruminants, short-bowel syndrome in humans, and diarrhea in calves can all result in profound D-lactic acidemia, with remarkably similar neurological manifestations. In the past, D-lactate was thought to be excreted mainly in the urine, and metabolized slowly by the enzyme d-alpha-hydroxy acid dehydrogenase. More recent studies reported that mammals have a relatively high capacity for D-lactate metabolism and identified a putative mammalian D-lactate dehydrogenase. A growing body of literature is also emerging describing subclinical elevation of D-lactate as an indicator of sepsis and trauma. This article describes advances in the understanding of D-lactate metabolism, D-lactic acidosis in ruminants and humans, and subclinical elevation of d-lactate.

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Paradoxical increase in arterial hydrogen ion concentration in patients with hepatorenal failure given lactate-based fluids.

We have investigated lactate intolerance in nine patients with acute hepatorenal failure during 21 machine haemofiltration treatments using a lactate based replacement solution. In all cases hyperlactataemia occurred, the mean arterial lactate increased from 1 +/- 0.2 mmol/l (mean +/- SEM) prior to treatment to 3.2 +/- 0.3 mmol/l at 1 h (P less than 0.01), 4.2 +/- 0.4 mmol/l at 2 h (P less than 0.01), 4.2 +/- 0.4 mmol/l at 3 h (P less than 0.01) and 3.9 +/- 0.4 mmol/l (P less than 0.01) post-treatment. There were correlations between the maximum increase in blood lactate and both the change in arterial hydrogen ion concentration (r = 0.71, P = 0.001) and the mean arterial blood pressure prior to starting treatment (r = -0.57, P = 0.007). During eight of the treatments (38%), the arterial hydrogen ion concentration increased. This group showed increased lactate intolerance in association with a lesser pretreatment mean arterial pressure. The administration of exogenous lactate to patients with hepatorenal failure who are at, or near to, the threshold of their own endogenous lactate metabolism can result in an increase in hydrogen ion concentration rather than the expected decrease, and therefore lactate-based dialysate solutions are best avoided.

Acid-Base Equilibrium↗
PubMed1994

Effects of relaxin on blood pressure and the release of vasopressin and oxytocin in anesthetized rats during pregnancy and lactation.

The effects of porcine relaxin (pRXN) on arterial blood pressure and on the release of vasopressin (VP) and oxytocin (OT) were investigated in urethane-anesthetized rats at different stages of pregnancy and lactation. Acute i.v. pRXN (5 micrograms) caused a significant increase in systolic and diastolic blood pressure in pregnant and lactating rats. However, the pressor response was attenuated from Day 14 of pregnancy to Day 1 of lactation. The hormone had no effect on blood pressure in Day 16, Day 19, or Day 21 pregnant rats. At all stages of pregnancy and lactation, i.v. pRXN caused a significant increase in plasma VP concentrations. This response was attenuated in Day 19 and Day 21 pregnant and in Day 1 lactating rats. Intravenous pRXN also caused a significant, short-term increase in plasma OT in pregnant and lactating rats. The OT response to pRXN was attenuated on Day 16 of pregnancy, and pRXN had no effect on plasma OT in late-pregnant rats. The data in this study demonstrate that pRXN causes an increase in both arterial blood pressure and VP and OT release in anesthetized pregnant and lactating rats. However, these effects are either reduced or not observed in late-pregnant and early-lactating rats.

Anesthesia↗

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