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PubMed1999

The efforts of WHO and Pugwash to eliminate chemical and biological weapons--a memoir.

The World Health Organization and the Pugwash Conferences on Science and World Affairs (Nobel Peace Prize 1995) have been involved in questions concerning chemical and biological arms since the early 1950s. This memoir reviews a number of milestones in the efforts of these organizations to achieve the elimination of these weapons through international treaties effectively monitored and enforced for adherence to their provisions. It also highlights a number of outstanding personalities who were involved in the efforts to establish and implement the two major treaties now in effect, the Biological Weapons Convention of 1972 and the Chemical Weapons Convention of 1993.

Anthrax↗
PubMed1995

CDC recommendations for civilian communities near chemical weapons depots: guidelines for medical preparedness--CDC. Publication of final recommendations.

On July 27, 1994, CDC published in the Federal Register, 59 FR 38191, "CDC Recommendations for Civilian Communities Near Chemical Weapons Depots: Guidelines for Medical Preparedness" and requested public comment. Seven people sent comments; many were responding on behalf of governments or other institutions in affected communities. These comments are available upon request. These recommendations incorporate changes made in response to the comments received and constitutes CDC's final recommendations for minimum standards for prehospital and hospital emergency medical services' readiness in communities near the eight locations where the U.S. stockpile of lethal chemical weapons is stored. The eight locations are: Umatilla Army Depot Activity, Oregon; Tooele Army Depot, Utah; Pueblo Army Depot Activity, Colorado; Pine Bluff Arsenal, Arkansas; Newport Army Ammunition Plant, Indiana; Anniston Army Depot, Alabama; Lexington Bluegrass Depot Activity, Kentucky; and Edgewood Area, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Maryland. These recommendations were prepared to assist emergency planners in determining emergency medical services' readiness in communities near the 8 locations where the U.S. stockpile of lethal chemical weapons is stored. These guidelines should not be used for any purpose other than planning for the Chemical Stockpile Emergency Preparedness Program.

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, U.S.↗
PubMed2003

Chemical, biological, and radiological weapons: implications for optometry and public health.

BACKGROUND: Because of growing concerns of terrorist attacks using chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons, appropriate diagnosis and management of ocular and systemic effects are important issues for eye care practitioners. OVERVIEW: The literature on the ocular and systemic effects of chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons is reviewed to provide practicing optometrists with an overview of the issues involved in incident management. A discussion of the public health issues and implications is also presented. Chemical, biological, radiological, and nuclear weapons can exert serious consequences on the eye and the entire body. Acts of terrorism can pose unique challenges to patient care and to the healthcare system infrastructure. The clinician must be familiar with signs of potential terrorist activities to aid in appropriate patient care and in the containment of illness in the community. CONCLUSIONS: Knowledge of the signs and symptoms of exposure to potential agents used by terrorists and a review of the public health concerns of managing terrorist events can provide the necessary background to help the eye care provider make the appropriate diagnosis and understand the role of the clinician in the hierarchy of disaster preparedness, surveillance, and response.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Hygienic aspects of elimination of chemical weapons in the Russian Federation].

A specialized and unified package of measures has been developed for hygienic provision of work on the elimination of chemical weapons. The optimum algorithms of hygienic studies have been defined at all stages of the elimination of chemical weapons from the start of design of operations to conversion and transition for national economic needs. Guidelines for safe work at the objects of elimination of chemical weapons and for the protection of the environment and human health in the areas where they are located--have been developed.

Chemical Warfare↗
PubMed2003

[Neurological effects of chemical and biological weapons].

Neurological manifestations of chemical and biological weapons are reviewed. Nerve agents in current use, storage, or production include tabun, sarin, soman and VX. The initial effects of exposure to a nerve agent depend on the dose and on the route of exposure. Sarin, the agent studied most thoroughly in man in Matumoto and Tokyo attacked by Aum shinrikyo will cause miosis, rhinorrehea and shortness of breath are initial complaints immediately after inhalation exposure of the vapor. The severe cases showed loss of consciousness and convulsions. Respiratory arrest may occur. The most toxic of the nerve agents is VX. It is thought to be 100 times as toxic as sarin for humans by the percutaneous rout. The similar findings to sarin exposure are also observed in cases exposured to VX. Atropin and PAM will be effective in the early stage. BZ (benzilate) is a delayed onset incapacitation agent. It causes severe hallucination. The cyanide compounds are among the most rapidly acting of war gases, resulting in death. Anthrax has been the most attractive biological weapon for a long time. Anthrax is an acute bacterial infection of the skin and lungs in man and animals. Meningoencephalitis has been reported in the terminal stage in anthrax infection. In autopsy, it is really confirmed in the characteristic findings of the meningeal abnormality. The potential weaponization of variola virus continues to pose a military threat because the aerosol infectivity of the virus and the development of susceptible populations. A high rate of lethality, a staunch resistance to treatments and a rapid onset of severe generalised muscle weakness make botulinum toxin a suitable agent for biological warfare particularly by oral administration.

Animals↗
PubMed2005

[Biological weapons and biological defence in Denmark].

Biological weapons have been known for centuries, and since World War II, offensive programs have accelerated the development of these weapons considerably. The anthrax attacks in the fall 2001 and speculations regarding the research and development of Iraqi bioweapons have been causes for concern. The effect of biological weapons may be overwhelming, in particular when one is dealing with a contagious agent. The National Centre for Biological Defence provides a preparedness capability through evidence-based research and practical operational capabilities.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2005

[Viruses as biological weapons].

The destruction made by nuclear, biological and chemical weapons used by governments and terrorist groups in the near history is posing anxiety and fear for human being. Rumour about the possible use of these agents leads to the development of serious negative effects on populations. Since there are no vaccine and therapy for most viral agents and cost of production as biological weapons is low, interest rate is rising for viruses. In this review, general characteristics, diagnosis, therapy and protective measures for viral agents such as variola virus, hemorrhagic fever viruses, encephalitis viruses, Hantaviruses and Nipah viruses, those can be used as biological weapon, have been summarized.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed2006

The biological and toxin weapons convention.

The Convention on the Prohibition of the Development, Production, and Stockpiling of Bacteriological (Biological) and Toxin Weapons and on their Destruction prohibits the development, production, acquisition, transfer, stockpiling and use of microbial or other biological agents, or toxins in a manner which has no justification for prophylactic, protective or other peaceful purposes. It also bans weapons, equipment or means of delivery designed to use such agents or toxins for hostile purposes or in armed conflict. It covers biological and toxin weapons against humans, animals and plants. This article provides a brief history of the Convention and presents an overview of its five Review Conferences; the 'Ad Hoc Group of Governmental Experts, open to all States Parties, to Identify and Examine Potential Verification Measures from a Scientific and Technical Standpoint' (usually referred to as VEREX); and efforts to develop a legally binding instrument to strengthen the Convention, as well as the annual meetings of experts and States Parties which have taken place over the last three years. Issues of particular relevance to the World Organisation for Animal Health (OIE) are highlighted throughout, demonstrating their longstanding and fruitful contributions to ensuring that veterinary science is used only for the benefit of mankind.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed1991

A new approach to a damage risk criterion for weapons impulses.

Existing damage-risk criteria for weapons impulses suffer from their lack of a theoretical basis, thereby limiting their generalizability and utility. Furthermore, a number of studies now indicate that they may be inaccurate for impulses with energy in the low frequency region (Dancer & al., 1985; Patterson & al., 1985; Price & al., 1989). We have approached the problem by modeling the ear mathematically as a means of gaining insight into the loss processes. In the model, the external and middle ears are linear at lower intensities; however, the stapes displacement is limited to 20 microns, as would be expected on anatomical/physical grounds. Susceptibility, in the inner ear, is modeled as mechanical stress, a function of basilar membrane displacement and number of flex cycles. The model, which is executable on a PC-based computer, reproduces the data on the ear that can be measured at lower intensities. It also ranks the known hazard from impulses in the correct order, explains the finding of loss in mid-cochlea regardless of spectral location of the weapons impulse, and suggests that the greatest hazard comes from that portion of the acoustic wave in which pressures cross through ambient and at a rate consistent with energy in the mid-range. Because the model is theoretically based, it has the potential for use as the basis for a damage risk criterion for impulse noise as well as for a design criterion for weapons.

Adult↗
PubMed1991

Firing recoilless weapons from enclosures.

THE PROBLEM: Recoilless weapons commonly release a great deal of energy rearward in the immediate vicinity of the crew. If such weapons are fired from within structures, there is concern that in addition to the acoustic hazard to the ear or other organs, there might be hazard associated with flying debris or even structural collapse. STUDIES: Two studies were conducted to evaluate such hazards by remotely firing a total of 24 rounds from the 90 mm recoilless rifle, LAW, TOW, and DRAGON weapons systems from within enclosures (Price, 1978; Shank & Garinther, 1975). The structures, selected from available buildings, were made of various materials (reinforced concrete, masonry, sandbags, and wood) and ranged in volume from 14m3 to 161 m3 with venting areas from 2.9 m2 to 11 m2. Data included pressure histories, motion pictures of the structures and small objects placed in the room, and physiological data from 32 goats (tissue/organ system damage) and 8 cats (hearing loss measures). RESULTS AND CONCLUSIONS: At the firer's locations, peak pressures ranged from 178 to 189 dB and B-durations ranged from 28 to 376 msec. Although the firings commonly produced some structural damage, none of the firings caused structural collapse or induced tissue damage to nonauditory organs. Ear drum rupture did occur in 5 goats and the cat ears exposed with no hearing protection did show permanent hearing losses. Of the cat ears exposed with hearing protection (EAR plugs), only one showed a permanent loss.

Female↗
PubMed1990

[Biological weapons--conventions and history].

The UN Convention of 10 April 1972 bans the development, production and storage of biological weapons. Prohibition of their use was already covered by the 1925 Geneva Protocol. Pursuant to Article XII of the 1972 Convention, two follow-up conferences have been held, in 1980 and 1986, and an expert meeting in Geneva in 1987. As a result, the parties to the Convention have agreed to the exchange of equipment, materials and scientific information relevant to biological weapons, open publication of research, and exchange of scientists. Historically, the spread of infections has often been attempted in warfare. Presently, the very rapid development of biotechnology creates a diffuse situation, where the development of biological weapons is quite conceivable. This indicates that our national preparedness concept will have to include preparedness against biological warfare for several more decades.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMed1985

[Consequences for military medicine of new nuclear weapons developments].

The development and production of qualitatively new nuclear weapons (e.g. neutron weapons) has consequences also for the medical protection under conditions of war. In the present paper the peculiarities of these new systems of arms as well as the profile of injured persons which is to be expected after use of neutron weapons are analysed and general conclusions for the medical service are drawn.

Dose-Response Relationship, Radiation↗
PubMed1994

Blunt head trauma: comparison of various weapons with intracranial injury and neurologic outcome.

The weapons used in blunt head trauma cases were identified to determine if a particular weapon was associated with a specific type of intracranial injury or a poorer neurologic outcome. A consecutive sample of 178 patients was examined. Forty-seven percent of patients beaten with baseball bats and 63% of patients beaten with fists had positive computed tomographic (CT) findings. Twenty five percent of patients beaten with bats and 48% of those beaten with fists had poor neurologic outcomes (p < 0.056). Of those with positive CT findings, 30% of patients beaten with bats and 59% of patients beaten with fists had a poor outcome (p = 0.511). No weapon was associated with a particular intracranial injury. Of assault victims who survive an attack and require admission to the hospital, those beaten with bats are less likely to have significant neurologic dysfunction upon hospital discharge than those beaten with fists.

Adolescent↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Electroshock devices as weapon].

13 electric shock weapons were investigated. The authors measured the electrical output and observed the effects on corpses and test persons. The electric shock weapons produced only moderate pain and did not stop the disposing capacity. The electrocardiogram and the circulation parameters were not influenced. The electric shock weapons tested might have only a limited deterrent effect and might be able to cause fatal complications under circumstances. Drug use and heart disease might enhance the risk.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

[Gas weapons as a variation on gas-propelled firearms].

Discusses the motion of gas weapons as defence weapons, including the group of gas barrel guns. Characterizes its design and ammunition. Presents arguments in favor of referring gas barrel guns to firearm devices. Shows the place of gas barrel guns in the general classification of ejecting devices and offers a classification of civil chemical weapons.

Chemical Warfare↗
PubMed1997

Biological weapons control. Prospects and implications for the future.

The Biological and Toxin Weapons Convention (BWC), which prohibits the acquisition of biological materials for hostile purposes and armed conflict, entered into force in 1975 and now has the participation of 140 nations (158 nations have signed the BWC, but only 140 of these have also ratified it). However, there is no monitoring mechanism associated with the BWC. Diplomatic efforts are now under way to create a supplemental, legally binding protocol to strengthen the convention. Measures to strengthen the BWC are analogous to the diagnostic processes familiar to physicians; the problem facing negotiators is to identify procedures with high positive and negative predictive value. Few proposed measures meet these criteria. However, the investigation of unusual disease outbreaks and allegations of use are highly diagnostic of illicit activities while avoiding false-positive accusations. At the same time, such information generated by the BWC can contribute to worldwide efforts to improve public health, control emergent disease, and establish an international norm against biological weapons proliferation.

Biological Warfare↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Hospital planning for weapons of mass destruction incidents.

As terrorists attacks increase in frequency, hospital disaster plans need to be scrutinized to ensure that they take into account issues unique to weapons of mass destruction. This paper reports a review of the literature addressing hospital experiences with such incidents and the planning lessons thus learned. Construction of hospital disaster plans is examined as an ongoing process guided by the disaster planning committee. Hospitals are conceived as one of the components of a larger community disaster planning efforts, with specific attention devoted to defining important linkages among response organizations. This includes the public health authorities, political authorities, prehospital care agencies, and emergency management agencies. A review is completed of six special elements of weapons of mass destruction incidents that should be addressed in hospital disaster plans: incident command, hospital security, patient surge, decontamination, mental health consequences, and communications. The paper closes with a discussion of the importance of training and exercises in maintaining and improving the disaster plan.

Decontamination↗
PubMed1999

Anthrax as a biological weapon: medical and public health management. Working Group on Civilian Biodefense.

OBJECTIVE: To develop consensus-based recommendations for measures to be taken by medical and public health professionals following the use of anthrax as a biological weapon against a civilian population. PARTICIPANTS: The working group included 21 representatives from staff of major academic medical centers and research, government, military, public health, and emergency management institutions and agencies. EVIDENCE: MEDLINE databases were searched from January 1966 to April 1998, using the Medical Subject Headings anthrax, Bacillus anthracis, biological weapon, biological terrorism, biological warfare, and biowarfare. Review of references identified by this search led to identification of relevant references published prior to 1966. In addition, participants identified other unpublished references and sources. CONSENSUS PROCESS: The first draft of the consensus statement was a synthesis of information obtained in the formal evidence-gathering process. Members of the working group provided formal written comments which were incorporated into the second draft of the statement. The working group reviewed the second draft on June 12, 1998. No significant disagreements existed and comments were incorporated into a third draft. The fourth and final statement incorporates all relevant evidence obtained by the literature search in conjunction with final consensus recommendations supported by all working group members. CONCLUSIONS: Specific consensus recommendations are made regarding the diagnosis of anthrax, indications for vaccination, therapy for those exposed, postexposure prophylaxis, decontamination of the environment, and additional research needs.

Adolescent↗