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The present work shows the specific features of the epidemiological surveillance of infectious diseases, carried out by the All-Union Centers of the Central Research Institute of Epidemiology (sponsored by the Ministry of Health of the USSR) in different regions of the USSR with due consideration of the specific features of each disease.
At the period of 1980-1982 the isolation of salmonellae belonging to 394 serovars was registered in the USSR. Of these, 116 Salmonella serovars were registered in the USSR for the first time. 12 dominating serovars constituted 83.1% of salmonellae isolated from humans, 99% of salmonellae isolated from animals and 70% of all salmonellae isolated from different environmental objects. S. typhimurium was the predominant serovar, found to determine 50% of cases of Salmonella infection. The isolation rate of S. infantis and S. virchow was shown to increase. The existence of definite ecological relationships between infective agents isolated from different sources was established.
The occurrence in the USSR of C. (A.) sanguisuga Coq., a species recorded earlier only from North America has been stated. The species seems to have a wide distribution throughout the USSR. The description and figures of females and males collected in the south of Krasnojorsk territory are given. In the author's opinion the male of C. sanguisuga was repeatedly described in the Soviet literature but under other names (C. obsoletus, C. seimi). Morphological characters of females of four species of the subgenus Avaritia (C. sanguisuga, C. sinanoensis, C. chiopterus and C. filicinus) recorded from the region of observations are described.
Influenza A (H3N2) virus strains isolated in 1968-1980 in the USSR (1908 strains), PRB (1413 strains) and in other countries were studied comparatively. Among 15 drift variants described in the literature only 6 were found to have sequential epidemic spread. In all the instances the epidemics occurred after importation of the virus from abroad, the interval between the emergence of a new drift variant and its detection in the study areas ranged from 2 1/2 months to 1 1/2 years and was not synchronous for the USSR and PRB. A progressive decrease of the antigenic determinant typical of the prototype A/Hong Kong/1/68 in hemagglutinin and neuraminidase of the drift variants was observed. The strains isolated in 1979-1980 were not directly related to the A/Hong Kong/1/68 strain but were connected with it through intermediate variants circulating in 1974-1975.
Seroepidemiological characteristics of rubella and cytomegalovirus infection in the north of the USSR were studied. Examinations of 21,000 patients with rubella and serological survey of 1500 subjects revealed the identity of the main epidemiological indices and age changes in antibody to rubella virus in the northern and central parts of the USSR. The general percentage of seropositives to cytomegalovirus is significantly higher in the north than in other parts of the country. The importance of the observed findings for the determination of the incidence of congenital pathology due to rubella and cytomegalovirus infection in the north is discussed.
Virological examinations of water from rivers, channels, lakes, and water reservoirs were carried out in two countries, the GDR and the USSR, in 1973-1974. The occurrence of enteroviruses in all the water bodies was demonstrated. The infection rate of water with viral and bacterial flora and water pollution with organic suspension was found to be dependent upon sewage drainage. The canals (GDR) and rivers (USSR) into which sewage of large densely populated towns were discharged were found to be most highly infected (67% and 36% of virus-containing samples, respectively). The least infected were lakes and water reservoirs receiving no or small quantities of sewage. The difference between the values indicating virus infection and pollution with organic substances in water bodies receiving and not receiving sewage was statistically significant.
Summarized data on the specific structure of Shigella strains isolated in different territories of the USSR in 1979-1981 are presented. These data indicate that in the intra-specific structure of S. flexneri strains the proportion of serological subvariant 2a increased and that of serological variant 6 and subvariants 16 and 4a decreased during this period. Using one of the base territories of the All-Union Shigellosis Center as an example, the spread of an unusual serological variant of S. flexneri (IV:7,8) in the USSR is shown. The increase of the proportion of S. boydii strains, mainly S. boydii 4, is noted.
The results of serotyping of 101 meningococcal strains isolated in the Soviet Union and 23 strains isolated in the Republic of Cuba are presented. Typing within groups was carried out by Frasch's method in the double diffusion test in gel. For this purpose serotype antigens were prepared from each strain. These antigens were used in the test only after their purification by ultracentrifugation. In all cases the prevalence of serotype 2 was revealed. A great number of Cuban strains contained a wide spectrum of type antigens of both protein and lipopolysaccharide nature. Serotype antigen 15 occurred in meningococci isolated both in the USSR and in Cuba. In most cases type 15 occurred in combination with types 2 and 8. The comparison of the results obtained in the serotyping of meningococci isolated in situations, nonepidemic (USSR) and epidemic (Cuba) for serogroup B, gives no grounds for considering type 2 as the "marker of virulence". Probably, this problem will be solved by the differentiation of subtypes within type 2. Attention should be paid to the serotype antigens of the lipopolysaccharide nature with a view to their epidemiological evaluation.
Reported in this paper are the preparation, testing and application of two live vaccines against anthrax in the USSR. They were STI live vaccine in liquid and lyophilised forms and GHKI live vaccine in lyophilised form. Official tests for purity were conducted, using growth factors of cultures, whereas harmlessness was tested on rabbit and effectiveness on guinea-pig and later on sheep, after some five years had elapsed. Quantitative methods by which to test the effectiveness of VGNKI are now being prepared. Immunisation for prophylaxis or emergency are undertaken, depending on epizootiological situations. Major importance is ascribed to keeping, feeding, general nutrition and performance, latent infections, and meteorological factors which can all be of impact on immunogenicity and postvaccinal complications. Anthrax has been eliminated in the USSR, with only few sporadic outbreaks left, owing to immunisation and complementary action in veterinary hygiene.
The data on the relative significance of Sh. sonnei cultures in the totally of the cultures of all Shigella species circulating in different areas of the USSR in 1974--1979 are presented. The study of 527 Sh. sonnei strains resulted in their description based on 32 biochemical characteristics. The strains under study were typical in most of their constant characteristics, deviations being recorded in salicin (0.9%), argininee (1.9%) and arabinose (10%). The peculiarities of the biochemical reactions of the strains under study, grown in media containing glycerin, raffinose, xylose, lactose, sucrose, rhamnose, ornithine and arginin, were established, which proved to have a considerable practical value for the identification of Sh. sonnei circulating in the USSR. The data on the fermentation time of rhamnose, xylose and maltose allowed to biochemically differentiate 7 biovars of Sh. sonnei.
Food samples from various parts of the USSR have been analysed for volatile N-nitrosamines (NA). The results are comparable to data published elsewhere. Kilning of malt with direct combustion gases accounts for the presence of NA in beer. NA have been found in city air, diesel exhausts and in a rubber factory. Vulcanized rubber contains NDMA and NMOR. Nitrosoproline has been determined in a variety of foodstuffs. Variations of nitrate contents in vegetables due to mineral fertilizers and some herbicides are reported. A steady increase of average nitrate concentrations in vegetables has been observed in Estonia over a period of 12 years. Precursors of NA have been found in water (Moldavia), and soil (Moscow district and Tshuvash republic). Nitramines can be formed in vivo from NA, and vice versa. Formation of NDMA from aminopyrine has been inhibited under gastric conditions by properly composed meals. Numerous food components have been studied as nitrite scavengers. Modifications of analytical methods for NA have been proposed. Four laboratories in the USSR are equipped with the Thermal Energy Analyzer.
Some tendencies in the kinetics of the morbidity and mortality rate among the USSR population due to malignant neoplasms of the uterine cervix have been studied for the period of 1970-1977. The age-sex adjusted indices of the morbidity rate are reported as well as the data on the cohorts of women kept under a dispensary control. Some reduction was noted in the morbidity and mortality rate due to cervical cancer among the female population of the USSR and Union Republics.
Monoclonal antibodies for the A/England/864/75 strain hemagglutinin were used for antigenic analysis of influenza A (H3N2) viruses isolated in the USSR in December 1979--January 1980. The results of studies with 5 different monoclones were compared with those obtained with postinfection ferret sera. It was shown that several variants of epidemic strain could circulate during one epidemic season. The epidemic in the USSR in December, 1979--January 1980 was caused by influenza viruses H3N2 similar to A/Texas/1/77 as well as further driftstrains. Four epidemic strains were circulating which differed by the composition of antigenic determinants of hemagglutinin. Members of the first group shared 4 out of 5 determinants with A/England/864/75 strains, the second group differed by two monoclones and was identical with the A/Texas/1/77 strain. The third group differed in 3 determinants and was similar to the A/Bangkok/1/79 strain, the fourth group was related to the A/England/864/75 strain only by one out of five clones. The method of monoclonal antibodies was shown to be highly sensitive and could be satisfactorily used for subtle antigenic analysis of influenza viruses.
A study was made of enteropathogenic escherichia "Krym" isolated in the USSR from patients with acute enteric diseases; their antigenic structure was unknown. Also cultures of new serological groups officially recorded as standard test-strains were investigated. By its antigenic structure "Krym" escherichia corresponded to the standard strain of the international set 0151:K--. Along with the H10 antigen described earlier "Krym" escherichia proved to possess H11 antigen; these two serological types of escherichia were revealed in the USSR, i.e. 0151:K--: H10 and 0151:K--: H11. The statement on the presence of a new H50 antigen described in escherichia 880-67 with an antigenic formula of 0151:K--: H50 should be revised due to its complex identity with the 0151: K--: H10 strain. For proper serological identification the conditioned name "Krym" should be replaced by "escherichia of serological group 0151:K--".
The all-round and detailed study of tularemia carried out in the USSR for 50 years (1926-1976) offered a possibility to lay scientific foundation and to carry out an effective control of this infection in the whole country, providing a sharp and stable reduction of the incidence of this infection in man. By a number of sections and by practical results tularemia investigations in the USSR excelled foreign data.
The accident which occurred during the night of April 25-26, 1986 in reactor 4 of the Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Ukraine released considerable amounts of radioactive substances into the environment. Outside the former USSR, the highest levels of contamination were recorded in Bulgaria, Austria, Greece and Romania, followed by other countries of Central, Southeast and Northern Europe. Studies of the health consequences of the accident have been carried out in these countries, as well as in other countries in Europe. This report presents the results of a critical review of cancer studies of the exposed population in Europe, carried out on the occasion of the 10th anniversary of the Chernobyl accident. Overall, three is no evidence to date of a major public health impact of the Chernobyl accident in the field of cancer in countries of Europe outside the former USSR.
A survey of the human factors discipline was conducted in the USSR. Interviews were conducted with prominent Russian scientists in research institutes, academic institutions and design organisations. This report describes the historical development of the field, current research interests and methodologies, academic programmes and the nature of this discipline as it has evolved in the USSR in comparison with the USA.
Poxviruses encode a broad range of proteins that interfere with host immune functions such as soluble versions of cytokine receptors. Soluble virus tumour necrosis factor receptors (vTNFRs) were described originally in myxoma and Shope fibroma viruses. Cowpox virus (CPV) encodes three vTNFRs (CrmB, CrmC and CrmD). The genes equivalent to CrmB and CrmC in vaccinia virus (VV) Copenhagen are mutated and are named B28R/C22L and A53R, respectively. CrmD was identified recently in CPV and ectromelia virus but the gene is absent in VV Copenhagen. We have tested for expression of soluble binding activity for human TNF in cultures infected with 18 orthopoxviruses and have found that TNFRs are mostly absent but are produced by VV strains Lister, USSR and Evans, by the CPV elephantpox and by camelpox virus. Interestingly, we also found TNFR activity on the surface of cells infected with VV Lister, USSR and Evans. Sequence analysis of the relevant regions in VV Lister identified an intact A53R gene and an inactive B28R gene. Expression of VV Lister A53R in baculovirus and VV Western Reserve demonstrated that gene A53R encodes an active soluble vTNFR of 22 kDa. Expression and characterization of recombinant vTNFRs from VV Lister (A53R) and CPV (CrmB and CrmC) showed a similar binding specificity, with each receptor binding TNF from man, mouse and rat, but not human lymphotoxin-alpha. Lastly, the VV Lister and CPV vTNFRs bind human TNF with high affinity and prevent the binding of TNF to cellular receptors.