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PubMed2004

Persistence of four s-triazine herbicides in river, sea and groundwater samples exposed to sunlight and darkness under laboratory conditions.

The persistence of terbuthylazine, simazine, atrazine and prometryn (s-triazine herbicides) was studied in sea, river and groundwaters during long-term laboratory incubation (127 days) under different laboratory conditions (light-darkness at 20 degrees C). Analysis of herbicides was performed by GC-NPD and their identity was confirmed by GC-MSD. A micro on-line method for the isolation of herbicide residues was used. The results showed that light had little effect on the removal of the four herbicides in riverwater but had a marked effect on their removal from sea and groundwater. Surprisingly, this removal appeared to be inversely proportional to the concentration of dissolved organic materials. In general, the degradation order was similar in sea and riverwaters; simazine was the most readily degraded compound (t(1/2)= 29-49 days), while terbuthylazine was the most persistent with the longest half-lives (76-331 days). In groundwater, terbuthylazine also showed greater persistence but prometryn was the compound with a fastest degradation rate, half-lives ranged from 88 days for prometryn to approximately 100 days for the other three compounds in light conditions and 263-366 days for prometryn and terbuthylazine, respectively, in darkness. Only for terbuthylazine was the remaining percentage at the end of the experiment higher than 50% under light conditions in riverwater, while in the other cases, the remaining percentage varied from 7 to 43% for simazine in seawater and atrazine in groundwater, respectively. Finally, a greater persistence was observed in groundwater for the four compounds.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2006

Application of a GIS-AF/RF model to assess the risk of herbicide leaching in a citrus-growing area of the Valencia Community, Spain.

We integrated an index-based attenuation factor/retardation factor (AF/RF) model into a GIS to evaluate the risk of leaching of the most frequently applied herbicides (glyphosate, diuron, diquat, bromacil, simazine, linuron, terbuthylazine, and terbumeton) used in citrus orchards of the Valencia Community, Spain. The GIS-model system was applied to a region of 33,800 ha located near Valencia City. The soil and climate data required by the model were stored in an Arc/Info GIS in which the model algorithms were integrated using the AML programming language. A graphical user interface was developed to facilitate the use of the GIS-model system. The resulting simulation maps indicate that terbumeton, bromacil, and simazine herbicides have the highest risk of leaching because of their high mobility and low K(oc) (32-158 mg l(-1)). The remaining herbicides are strongly adsorbed by clay particles and organic matter, thus minimising the risk of leaching through the soil profile and into groundwater. The obtained ranking of the leaching potential of analysed herbicides is as follows, from highest to lowest risk: terbumeton>bromacil>simazine>terbuthylazine>diuron>linuron>glyphosate>diquat.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1998

Monitoring of pesticide residues and their metabolites in surface and underground waters of Imathia (N. Greece) by means of solid-phase extraction disks and gas chromatography.

Seasonal variations of pesticide residues in surface waters and ground waters of the Imathia area of Central Mecedonia (N. Greece) were determined for the period from May 1996 to April 1997. The sampling cruises included eight sites in rivers Aliakmon, Loudias, Tripotamos, Arapitsa and Canal-66, seven water springs in the mountain Vermion, seven rainfall water collection stations and one hundred underground points. Solid-phase extraction disks followed by gas chromatographic techniques with flame thermionic detection, electron capture detection and mass-selective detection were used for the monitoring of various pesticides their transformation products in environmental waters. The most commonly encountered pesticides in underground waters, were alachlor, atrazine, desethylatrazine (DEA), metolachlor, molinate, propanil, simazine, carbofuran, diazinon and parathion methyl. The above compounds including propazine, trifluralin, malathion, parathion ethyl, lindane, alpha-benzene hexachloride (alpha-BHC), beta-BHC, 4,4'-DDE and heptachlor were determined in river waters. The higher concentrations in underground waters were measured during the period from May to August, 1996, following seasonal application and diminished significantly during the autumn and winter. Water pollution by triazine and chloroacetanilides was highest in the estuarine areas; showing that many of these compounds are transported significant distances from their application sites. The major inputs of atrazine, alachlor, simazine and metolachlor occurred in May and June just after their application. Atrazine, DEA, diazinon and metolachlor were also detected in spring waters at concentration levels below 0.006 microgram/l. Finally, atrazine, DEA, carbofuran, simazine, diazinon, parathion ethyl and parathion methyl were detected in rainfall water samples collected in the agricultural area of Imathia (central part of the plain).

Agriculture↗
PubMed2003

Pesticides in Portuguese surface and ground waters.

Pesticides used in Portuguese agricultural areas have been found in surface and ground waters. In the surface water collected in three river basins from 1983 to 1999, insecticides and herbicides were detected from the monitored pesticides, particularly atrazine, chlorfenvinphos (Z+E), alpha- and beta-endosulfan, lindane, molinate and simazine, reaching the maximum values, respectively, of 0.63, 31.6, 0.18 microg/L (alpha-endosulfan), 0.18 microg/L (beta-endosulfan), 0.24, 48 and 0.3 microg/L. In the ground water collected from the wells of seven agricultural areas from 1991 to 1998, several monitored herbicides were detected: alachlor, atrazine, metolachlor, metribuzine and simazine, reaching the maximum concentration values of 13, 30, 56, 1.4 and 0.4 microg/L, respectively. The herbicides more frequently detected were atrazine (64%), simazine (45%) and alachlor (25%). Other than these, the monitored pesticides can be present in Portuguese surface and ground waters. Therefore, to improve the analytical conditions, the use of multiresidue methods and automated techniques are desirable in future work.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2001

Gross fluxes and estuarine behaviour of pesticides in the Scheldt estuary (1995-1997).

As part of the Fluxes of Agrochemicals into the Marine Environment (FAME) project, the gross fluxes of selected pesticides (i.e. the herbicides atrazine, simazine, alachlor and metolachlor, the atrazine degradation product desethylatrazine, the insecticide dichlorvos and the antifouling agent Irgarol 1051) transported by the river Scheldt and the Canal Ghent-Terneuzen were determined from March 1995 through February 1997. In general, the observed temporal trends were related to the application period of the pesticides, except for metolachlor for which elevated concentrations were observed in the winter of 1995-1996. Relatively large gross fluxes were found for desethylatrazine compared with its parent compound. A study on the estuarine behaviour of pesticides showed distinct differences between the compound classes. The mixing plots of the organophosphorus insecticides dichlorvos and diazinon revealed clear evidence of estuarine loss processes which agrees with their low DT50 values reported for water/sediment systems, their relatively high Henry's law constants and, for diazinon, its relatively high Koc value. The mixing plots of the acetanilides alachlor and metolachlor were strongly influenced by an additional direct emission into the estuary, which was evident from a maximum in dissolved concentration near a salinity of 10@1000. An apparent conservative behaviour was observed for the triazine compounds atrazine and Irgarol 1051. This was in contrast to simazine, which showed an apparent non-conservative behaviour. However, the time profiles of the riverine concentrations of simazine did not exclude that the observed curvature was solely caused by estuarine losses; therefore, additional modelling is required. In a follow-up study a suitable hydrological model of the Scheldt estuary was constructed; the results will be presented in a forthcoming paper (Steen, R.J.C.A., Evers, E.H.G., Van Hattum, B., Cofino, W.P. and Brinkman, U.A.Th. Net fluxes of pesticides from the Scheldt estuary into the North Sea: a model approach. Environmental Pollution, submitted.

England↗
PubMed2002

Net fluxes of pesticides from the Scheldt Estuary into the North Sea: a model approach.

A hydrological model was constructed with the commercially available modelling environment ECoS for the calculation of mixing plots of dissolved pesticide concentrations in the Scheldt Estuary. The model was based on a one-dimensional advection-dispersion equation and dispersion coefficients were calculated from measured salinity profiles. The model could correctly predict the movement of water masses within the estuary. Nominal flushing times of the estuary were calculated with the fraction-of-freshwater method and ranged between 25 and 95 days, depending on the freshwater discharge. Model calculations demonstrated that the application-related time profiles of pesticide input may well induce curvature in the calculated estuarine mixing plot even if the pesticide behaves conservatively. Calculated mixing plots were compared with experimental data and good agreement was obtained between the measurements and the conservative mixing plot of atrazine. For metolachlor an additional direct emission had to be modelled to explain the differences between the experimental data and the conservative mixing plot. For dichlorvos and simazine. on the other hand, an estuarine loss constant had to be included in the model. Using a least-squares procedure the estuarine loss constants for dichlorvos and simazine were estimated at half-lives of five and 26 days, respectively. Because mixing plots were strongly influenced by the time profiles of pesticide input, standard procedures in which net fluxes are calculated from mixing plots, were not applicable. Therefore, net fluxes were calculated with a newly developed procedure in which the estuarine loss constants and the estuarine flushing time were combined. For the non-conservative compounds dichlorvos and simazine, the net fluxes to the North Sea were found to be 96 and 64%, respectively, lower than the gross fluxes transported by the River Scheldt.

Agriculture↗
PubMed2005

Ultrasensitive magnetic particle-based immunosupported liquid membrane assay.

A magnetic particle-based immuno-supported liquid membrane assay (m-ISLMA) based on chemiluminescence detection of a horseradish peroxidase-labeled hapten tracer that allows sample cleanup, analyte enrichment, and detection in a single analysis unit has been developed. Antibodies were immobilized on magnetic beads, and their position in the acceptor was controlled by two alternating opposing electromagnetic fields generated by a voltage applied to either of two electromagnets placed below and above the acceptor channel of the supported liquid membrane unit. The influence of antibody bead dilution in the acceptor was investigated and found to follow the ISLM theory, that is improved enrichment and sensitivity with increasing antibody concentration. Two different extraction procedures were investigated: procedure 1 (m-ISLMA-P1), which keeps the antibody beads trapped at the bottom of the acceptor during the entire analysis process; and procedure 2 (m-ISLMA-P2), which keeps the antibody beads dispersed and in motion in the acceptor phase during the extraction process. m-ISLMA-P2 resulted in 2000 times improved enrichment of simazine and a more than 3 orders of magnitude better limit of detection (LOD(10%)) (1.29 x 10(-5) microg L(-1)) than for m-ISLMA-P1 (2.00 x 10(-2) microg L(-1)) and corresponding microtiter plate magnetic particle-based ELISA (m-ELISA, LOD(10%) 1.30 x 10(-1) microg L(-1)). m-ISLMA-P2 and m-ELISA were further applied for the extraction and analysis of simazine-spiked surface water and fruit juice, finding no evidence for matrix influence for the former method; however, indications that trace amounts (nanograms per liter) of simazine or specific cross-reactants were present in both samples.

Adsorption↗
PubMed1996

Analytical performance testing of an atrazine immunoassay system.

A rigorous performance evaluation of an enzyme immunoassay (EIA) kit for the determination of atrazine in water samples was undertaken. Eleven individual batches of samples containing standards and spiked drinking waters were analysed and precision, bias and limit of detection were measured using statistical analysis. The technique was shown to be capable of achieving performance criteria (a total standard deviation of less than 5% or 2.5 ng, whichever is the greater) demanded of modern analytical systems and achieved a limit of detection of 9.2 ng l-1. There was no statistically significant bias measured for drinking water samples. Interference tests showed that the atrazine immunoassay was not significantly affected in the pH range 4.0-8.0 or by drinking water matrix components (anions, cations and chlorination by-products), even at their maximum allowable concentrations. There was a small extent of cross-reaction with simazine and atrazine degradation products, but given the persistence of atrazine, through its resistance to hydrolysis, breakdown products are likely to be present at much lower concentrations than the parent compound in drinking water. Simazine may potentially be more problematic, so it would be prudent to monitor a proportion of samples for simazine to determine the extent to which this may be contributing to the 'atrazine' measured in drinking water samples using the EIA kit.

Atrazine↗
PubMed1994

Hypothesis for mammary tumorigenesis in Sprague-Dawley rats exposed to certain triazine herbicides.

The symmetrical triazine herbicides have been used for the preemergence control of broadleaf weeds for nearly three decades. Recently, certain members of this class, primarily the chlorotriazines (substituted in the 2 position), have been shown to evoke an increased incidence of mammary tumors in female Sprague-Dawley rats. This response was noted when these chemicals were administered in the diet for 2 yr, and most often at dietary feeding levels at or above the maximum tolerated dose (MTD). At levels exceeding the MTD the health of these animals was compromised, as manifested by toxicity-related reduced survival that was not associated with the occurrence of mammary tumors. Mammary tumors in rats frequently occur as a result of the influence of endogenous estradiol and prolactin. Those hormones, as well as progesterone, growth-stimulating, luteinizing, and follicle-stimulating hormones, were measured after 24 mo of dietary administration of the chlorotriazine, simazine. The plasma hormone pattern seen in aged female Sprague-Dawley rats administered 1000 ppm simazine in the diet for 24 mo resembled that noted for aged female controls, except that the difference was more pronounced in the simazine-treated group. These results suggest that prolonged exposure of Sprague-Dawley females to excessive levels of triazines affects the neuroendocrine system, which in turn alters the pathology of the mammary gland. These changes are comparable to those that occur naturally as the rat ages. Changes in neuroendocrine control could result in the expression of an earlier onset and/or an increased incidence of mammary tumors, which already occur at a high spontaneous rate in aging Sprague-Dawley female rats.

Adenocarcinoma↗
PubMed2005

Herbicide leaching on a recharge area of the Guarany aquifer in Brazil.

The region of Ribeirão Preto City, located in Southeast of Brazil, São Paulo State, is an important sugarcane, soybean, and corn producing area with a high level of pesticides utilization. This region is also an important recharge area for groundwater supply of the Guarany aquifer. Since the past ten years atrazine, simazine, ametryn, tebuthiuron, diuron, 2,4-D, picloram, and hexazinone are the main herbicides used in this area. In order to study a possible leaching of some of these herbicides into the aquifer, surface, and groundwater samples were collected in a watershed during the years of 1996 to 2003, from different locations. To detect and quantify the herbicides a GC-MS (gas chromatograph/mass spectrometry) method was used. The response of the herbicides analyzed was linear over the concentration range of 0.02 to 2.0 microg/L. Analysis of groundwater revealed that the herbicides tebuthiuron, diuron, atrazine, simazine, and ametryn were not present in the samples. In the surface water collected in 1997, ametryn was present in two out of nine locations with concentrations ranging from 0.17 and 0.23 microg/L, which is above the allowable 0.1 microg/L according to the European safety level. The leaching potential of tebuthiuron, diuron, atrazine, simazine, 2,4-D, picloram, and hexazinone has been evaluated using CMLS-94, "Chemical Movement in Layered Soil," as simulation model. No leaching into the depth of the water table at 40 m was found.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1975

Promotion of Sorghum Callus Growth by the s-Triazine Herbicides.

Growth-promoting action of simazine and other s-triazine herbicides was detected by the use of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor [L]. Moench) callus tissue and the chlorophyll retention test. Soil application of simazine [2-chloro-4, 6-bis(ethylamino)-s-triazine] at sublethal levels nearly doubled the growth-promoting action of sorghum root exudates. Treated plants yielded up to 26% more total protein than untreated plants. This indicated that the level of callus growth-promoting action in the root exudate of the plant has a positive effect on its final total protein yield and confirms a positive effect of simazine on total protein content in certain instances. The results may provide a new understanding of the mode of action of s-triazines applied at sublethal levels in increasing protein content and certain enzymic activities of treated plants. It is speculated that the growth-promoting action of these herbicides is hormonal in nature and most likely kinetin-like.

Journal Article↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Major herbicides in ground water: results from the National Water-Quality Assessment.

To improve understanding of the factors affecting pesticide occurrence in ground water, patterns of detection were examined for selected herbicides, based primarily on results from the National Water-Quality Assessment (NAWQA) program. The NAWQA data were derived from 2,227 sites (wells and springs) sampled in 20 major hydrologic basins across the USA from 1993 to 1995. Results are presented for six high-use herbicides--atrazine (2-chloro-4-ethylamino-6-isopropylamino-s-triazine), cyanazine (2-[4-chloro-6-ethylamino-1,3,5triazin-2-yl]amino]-2-methylpropionitrile), simazine (2-chloro-4,6-bis-[ethylamino]-s-triazine), alachlor (2-chloro-N-[2,6-diethylphenyl]-N-[methoxymethyl]acetamide), acetochlor (2-chloro-N-[ethoxymethyl]-N-[2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl]acetamide), and metolachlor (2-chloro-N-[2-ethyl-6-methylphenyl]-N-[2-methoxylethyl]acetamide)--as well as for prometon (2,4-bis[isopropylamino]-6-methoxy-s-triazine), a nonagricultural herbicide detected frequently during the study. Concentrations were <1 microg L(-1) at 98% of the sites with detections, but exceeded drinking-water criteria (for atrazine) at two sites. In urban areas, frequencies of detection (at or above 0.01 microg L(-1)) of atrazine, cyanazine, simazine, alachlor, and metolachlor in shallow ground water were positively correlated with their nonagricultural use nationwide (P < 0.05). Among different agricultural areas, frequencies of detection were positively correlated with nearby agricultural use for atrazine, cyanazine, alachlor, and metolachlor, but not simazine. Multivariate analysis demonstrated that for these five herbicides, frequencies of detection beneath agricultural areas were positively correlated with their agricultural use and persistence in aerobic soil. Acetochlor, an agricultural herbicide first registered in 1994 for use in the USA, was detected in shallow ground water by 1995, consistent with previous field-scale studies indicating that some pesticides may be detected in ground water within 1 yr following application. The NAWQA results agreed closely with those from other multistate studies with similar designs.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1998

OH radical reactivity of pesticides adsorbed on aerosol materials: first results of experiments with filter samples.

Preliminary results of a new method to investigate the OH radical reactivity of semi-volatile organic compounds (e.g., pesticides) are presented. Terbuthylazine, simazine, sodium benzoate, and bromoxynil were adsorbed on highly disperse silicon dioxide powder as an unreactive carrier at a thickness well below one monolayer. The coated material was suspended in air as an aerosol, sampled on filters, and exposed in an 840-liter Duran chamber to OH radicals, produced by photolysis of hydrogen peroxide in the gas phase. Sunlamps on top of the chamber were used as cold light sources [T(aerosol) approximately 25 degreesC]. OH radical concentrations (10(5)<cOH (cm-3)<3x10(6)) were monitored in the gas phase using a set of four hydrocarbons with well-known OH reactivities as reference compounds. The triazine terbuthylazine (kOH=1.1x10(-11) cm3 s-1) was used as a reference compound in the filter samples. Simazine and isoproturon were found to react with a comparable OH rate constant with respect to terbuthylazine. Sodium benzoate reacts about a factor of 3 slower. Rapid degradation was observed for bromoxynil, explained mainly by photolysis. Besides the characterization and discussion of the experimental setup used, the rate constants obtained are discussed and compared with estimated values.

Aerosols↗
PubMed1983

A comparative study of the effect of triazine herbicides on alcohol dehydrogenases isolated from various sources.

The studied herbicides (terbutylazine, simazine) inhibit the activity of plant, animal, and yeast alcohol dehydrogenases. The inhibition constant Ki for alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) isolated from peas and bakers' yeast equals approximately 10(-4) M, and that for ADH isolated from horse liver is of the order of 10(-5) M. The character of inhibition for all the herbicides studied for the reaction catalyzed by pea, liver, and yeast ADH is always noncompetitive toward ethanol and competitive with respect to NAD. The inhibition constants for the enzyme isolated from peas are pH independent. The interaction constants found for terbutylazine and simazine and for o-phenanthroline, nicotinamide, and ATP indicate that the herbicides are bonded through the metal component of the enzyme, similar to the nicotinamide part of NAD. The interaction constant less than unity found for the herbicide-ATP system indicates that the bonding site in the active center of the enzyme is different for the herbicides and the adenine part of NAD.

Alcohol Oxidoreductases↗
PubMed2006

Distribution and ecotoxicity of chlorotriazines in the Scheldt Estuary (B-Nl).

As part of the Endis-Risks project, the current study describes the occurrence of the chlorotriazine pesticides atrazine, simazine and terbutylazine in water, sediment and suspended matter in the Scheldt estuary (B-Nl) from 2002 to 2005 (3 samplings a year, 8 sampling points). Atrazine was found at the highest concentrations, varying from 10 to 736 ng/l in water and from 5 up to 10 ng/g in suspended matter. Simazine and terbutylazine were detected at lower concentrations. Traces of the targeted pesticides were also detected in sediments, but these were below the limit of quantification. As part of an ecotoxicological assessment, we studied the potential effect of atrazine on molting of Neomysis integer (Crustacea:Mysidacea), a resident invertebrate of the Scheldt Estuary and a proposed test organism for the evaluation of endocrine disruption. Following chronic exposure ( approximately 3 weeks), atrazine did not significantly affect mysid molting at environmentally relevant concentrations (up to 1 microg/l).

Animals↗
PubMed2004

Characterization of Arthrobacter nicotinovorans HIM, an atrazine-degrading bacterium, from agricultural soil New Zealand.

Arthrobacter nicotinovorans HIM was isolated directly from an agricultural sandy dune soil 6 months after a single application of atrazine. It grew in minimal medium with atrazine as sole nitrogen source but was unable to mineralize 14C-ring-labelled atrazine. Atrazine was degraded to cyanuric acid. In addition to atrazine the bacterium degraded simazine, terbuthylazine, propazine, cyanazine and prometryn but was unable to grow on terbumeton. When added to soil, A. nicotinovorans HIM did enhance mineralization of 14C-ring-labelled atrazine and simazine, in combination with naturally occurring cyanuric acid degrading microbes resident in the soil. Using PCR, the atrazine-degradation genes atzABC were identified in A. nicotinovorans HIM. Cloning of the atzABC genes revealed significant homology (>99%) with the atrazine degradation genes of Pseudomonas sp. strain ADP. The atrazine degradation genes were held on a 96 kbp plasmid.

Agriculture↗
PubMed1999

Tradescantia-micronucleus and -stamen hair mutation assays on genotoxicity of the gaseous and liquid forms of pesticides.

The clastogenic and mutagenic effects of the insecticide Dimethoate (Cygon-2E), herbicides Atrazine, Simazine (Princep), Dicamba (Banvel D) and Picloram (Tordon) were studied using the Tradescantia-micronucleus (Trad-MCN) and Tradescantia-stamen hair mutation (Trad-SHM) assays. In clone 4430, dimethoate fumes both significantly increased the pink mutation events and reduced the number of stamen hairs per filament with increasing dosages. The pink mutation events were elevated by the liquid treatment with Picloram at 100 ppm concentration. The result of Trad-MCN test on Dimethoate fumes was not significantly different between the control and treated groups. The herbicide Atrazine showed positive effects at 10-50 ppm dose (liquid) and signs of overdose at 100 and 500 ppm concentrations. Simazine was mildly positive in elevating the MCN frequencies in the dose range of 5 to 200 ppm (liquid doses). Both Dicamba and Picloram induced a dosage-related increase in MCN frequencies in the Trad-MCN tests using Tradescantia clone 03. However, in higher dosages (200 ppm or higher), there were signs of overdose, reduction of MCN frequencies and physical damage of the leaves and buds of plant cuttings.

Absorption↗
PubMed2003

A highly sensitive flow-through amperometric immunosensor based on the Peroxidase chip and enzyme-channeling principle.

A concept based on the Peroxidase-chip (P-chip), antibody co-immobilization, competitive and enzyme-channeling principle was exploited to develop an integrated flow-through amperometric biosensor for detection of environmental pollutants such as s-triazine herbicides. In this concept, recombinant peroxidase is immobilized on the gold electrode (P-chip) in such a way that direct electron transfer is achieved. The recognition and quantitation the target analyte is realized through the competition between the simazine-glucose oxidase (GOD) conjugate and free simazine for the binding sites of the monoclonal antibody co-immobilized with peroxidase on the gold electrode. The arrangement allows to generate a specific signal in the presence of glucose through the channeling of H2O2 produced by GOD conjugate bound to the antibody. The immunosensor exhibited 50% signal decrease (IC50 value) at approximately 0.02 microg l(-1). A concentration of 0.1 ng l(-1) gave a signal clearly distinguishable from the blank whereas the ELISA using the same antibody had a typical detection limit of about 1 microg l(-1), which is four orders of magnitude higher compared to the presented biosensor system. The results demonstrated that gene engineering biomolecules, in this case recombinant peroxidase, might be attractive reagents for the development of electrochemical immunosensors.

Biosensing Techniques↗