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PubMed2004

[Significance of sex and gender studies for anthropology].

The formation of a special working group for gender studies within the German Anthropological Society (GfA) makes necessary a description of history as well as topics of gender studies within science and biological anthropology. In German speaking countries, gender studies are predominantly associated with social and cultural sciences, although very successful working groups belonging to natural sciences already exist. Unfortunately, up to now gender studies within natural sciences are often interpreted negatively and the existence of sex is denied. This may be due to the long and difficult history of gender studies in natural sciences. For a long time, pseudoscientific misinterpretations of results of gender studies were used to manifest the inferior social position of women. However, since more than thirty years respectable gender studies are integrated in social as well as natural sciences. Gender studies are integrative parts of nearly all subdisciplines of biological anthropology. The formation of a working group for gender studies within the GfA seems therefore to be useful.

Anthropology↗
PubMed2004

[Towards an unified theory of the universe basic forces ("the everything theory")].

Numerous efforts have been made in order to unify all the basic forces in nature. In 1967 the fusion of electromagnetic and weak forces was obtained and in 1973 a theoretical bridge between the electroweak and the strong forces have been constructed. This theory is waiting for experimental proofs in the CERN large hadron collider. The last stage would be "the everything theory", which includes the gravitational force. Only the so called superstring theory is a good candidate to overcome the incompatibility of the quantum mechanics and the general relativity, but this theory is not already achieved.

Astronomical Phenomena↗
PubMed2004

[Postal communications: medicine in the correspondence of Johann Jakob Scheuchzer (1672--1733)].

This article examines different aspects of the history of medicine in the correspondence of the Swiss physician and scientist Johann Jakob Scheuchzer (1672--1733) from Zurich. The focus is on three different levels: persons, contents and functions. On all three levels we can observe that "medicine" takes in some way part of the res publica litteraria. The international correspondence network of Scheuchzer can be seen as a crucial "multiplicator" of communication within the scientific community.

Correspondence as Topic↗
PubMed2004

[The professor and his student. The correspondence between Lorenz Heister and Christoph Jacob Trew].

Letters were the central medium of communication in the medical scientific community of the 18th century. Professional as well as personal relationships were established among the various correspondents. These relationships constituted the smallest units of communication which contributed to the regional and international scientific network of the Republic of Letters. A correspondence that grew out of a trusted teacher-student relationship could gain an especially intense character both intellectually and personally. This contribution offers an analysis of an example of just such a correspondence. Lorenz Heister (1683--1758), medical professor at the universities of Altdorf and Helmstedt, and his disciple, Christoph Jacob Trew (1695--1769), who became a renowned physician and natural scientist in Nuremberg, communicated in letters to one another over a span of almost forty years. Their correspondence started as a rather asymmetrical dialogue. Over time, however, Heister and Trew came to meet as equals in almost every field of their competence. Their letters reveal a broad spectrum of scientific, organisational, professional, medical and personal issues which formed the basis of a stable and lasting learned correspondence in the age of Enlightenment.

Botany↗
PubMed2005

An investigation of Taiwanese early adolescents' views about the nature of science.

This study developed a Pupils' Nature of Science Scale, including the subscales of the invented and changing nature of science, the role of social negotiation on science, and cultural context on science, to assess early adolescents' views about the nature of science. More than 6,000 fifth and sixth graders in Taiwan responded to the Scale. The study revealed that the adolescents had quite different perspectives toward different subscales of the nature of science. Moreover, male adolescents tended to express more constructivist-oriented views toward the nature of science than did their female counterparts. The adolescents of different grades and races also displayed varying views toward the nature of science.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

[Confused Germanic blasphemy. Jacob Moleschott and materialistic medicine].

Starting from the reading of a recent biography of the Dutch materialistic physiologist Jacopo Moleschott (1822-1893), this article proposes a brief survey of the impact, especially in Italy, of the materialistic paradigm, not only in the field of medicine and of the natural sciences, but also in that of philosophy and of literature. From the rejection and ferocious criticisms of the Jesuits, such as Padre Previti, to the harsh ironies of Tommaseo--who, in reference to the academic lessons of Moleschott, spoke of "confused Germanic blasphemy"--, the survey proceeds to a recognition of the role and influence of Moleschott's perspective in the field of medicine, in that of science, and especially in the philosophical and epistemological debate on the relation between the experimental sciences and philosophy. The survey then proceeds to touch on the classical controversy over the Chemische Briefe of Liebig (1844), the dispute with Bufalini on the new way of thinking about the relation between physiology and pathology, and the influence exerted by the Dutch physiologist on Salvatore Tommasi. The article in the end broadens to include a rapid analysis of Moleschott's contribution to the field of literature, as well as to the more complicated debate on the natural sciences and materialism, which still today presents, beyond the outdated models of positivistic scientism, well-grounded themes of interest, if not of validity.

History, 19th Century↗
PubMed1998

Reductionism in physical sciences.

The idea of reductionism in physical sciences is that all physicochemical observables can be described in terms of a limited number of particles and their variable energies. Here we limit ourselves to atomic descriptions showing how very successful reductionism is in treating equilibrium systems. This includes all properties of single molecules, even DNA, and can be extended to dynamic assemblies of molecules through the variables composition, potential energies, kinetic energies (temperature) and volume (pressure). This description includes the capacity of a system to change, to do work. It does not include working or changing systems when we have to consider time-dependent variables such as directed motion, flow. Analysis of such accidentally or purposefully directed activity seems, to the author, to be outside the above reductionist analysis in that its feature is organization around a 'plan' or a 'cycle'. Thus reductionism fails to describe machines, man-made or biological, in that the parts are arranged, even dedicated, to a total function.

Energy Transfer↗
PubMed1994

[Not Available].

The philosophical interpretation of nature around 1800 exercised a deep influence on the natural sciences and medical disciplines, especially in regard to organisms, diseases and the relationship between nature and culture. Natural scientists and speculative philosophers in the Romantic era, a special phase between the 18th and 19th century, criticized the science of their time, but they in no way challenged the value and justification of an empirical approach to nature, though they rejected the absolutizing aspect of its positivistic perspective and pleaded for the unity of natural phenomena, the responsibility of man for nature, the concept of medicine as science and art.

Environment↗
PubMed1994

[A humane picture of the human? Prolegomenon of change in the human image in anatomy].

When during the last three decades of the 19th century German clinical medicine was established as a natural science anatomy e.g. was referred to as a model on this way. At that time this discipline, however, was delved into Richtungskämpfe between evolutionary morphology on the one side and physiological and clinically orientated anatomy on the other, comprising a discussion on the Wissenschaftlichkeit of the different directions. In the end anatomy evolved as a medical discipline leaving evolutionary morphology to the zoologists. Concomitantly with this change in the self-conception of the discipline as a natural science anatomy was charged with the imprinting of the prospective physician and his picture of the human being. This respective picture is analysed in the anatomical illustration from Vesalius up to nowadays considering the unity of art and anatomy in the visual media as well as in its disjunction. In this context the dominance of science on art in the service of anatomy is discussed with special reference to the neoclassical influence on further development. The latter is characterized by an increasing abstraction and diagrammatic representation of the human figure referring to man as a reparable electrochemical machine without mystery. This corresponds to a clinical medicine comprehending as a reparative and mechanical profession. The restoration of a humane picture of the human being may be achieved by an anatomy directed to life and an art extended to an anthropological conception.

Anatomy, Artistic↗
PubMed1993

[A human representation of humans? Changes in human representation in anatomy].

When during the last three decades of the 19th century German clinical medicine was established as a natural science anatomy e.g. was referred to as a model on this way. At that time this discipline, however, was delved into Richtungskämpfe between evolutionary morphology on the one side and physiological and clinical orientated anatomy on the other, comprising a discussion on the Wissenschaftlichkeit of the different directions. In the end anatomy evolved as a medical discipline leaving evolutionary morphology to the zoologists. Concomitantly with this change in the self-conception of the discipline as a natural science anatomy was charged with the imprinting of the prospective physician and his picture of the human being. This respective picture is analysed in the anatomical illustration from Vesalius up to nowadays considering the unity of art and anatomy in the visual media as well as in its disjunction. In this context the dominance of science on art in the service of anatomy is discussed with special reference to the neoclassical influence on further development. The latter is characterized by an increasing abstraction and diagrammatic representation of the human figure referring to man as a reparable electrochemical machine without mystery. This corresponds to a clinical medicine comprehending as a reparative and mechanical profession. The restoration of a human picture of the human being may be achieved by an anatomy directed to life and an art extended to an anthropological conception.

Anatomy↗