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PubMed2005

Contextual relative temporal duration judgment: an investigation of sequence interruptions.

How do listeners judge relative duration? There currently are three primary classes of proposed timing mechanisms: interval based (judgments of discrete events), beat based (judgments of beat synchrony), and oscillator based (judgments of relative phase or synchrony). In the present research, these mechanisms were examined in terms of predictions both about how an induction sequence of preceding intervals affects relative temporal duration comparison in a simple, two-interval task and about how a pause (e.g., an interstimulus interval) within the presented sequence affects relative temporal duration judgment. Results indicated that a relative temporal judgment was best when all intervals preceding the to-be-judged interval were equal in duration to the to-be-judged interval. Results also indicated that whereas short pauses significantly impair a relative temporal duration judgment, long pauses generally do not reduce the effectiveness of the induction sequence. The results are not entirely consistent with current conceptualizations of any of the proposed mechanisms but can be fully accommodated with simple modifications to the oscillator-based mechanism.

Attention↗
PubMed2003

Explicit and implicit processes in multicue judgment.

In two experiments, a multicue probability learning task was used to train participants in relating judgments to a criterion, on the basis of several cues that could or could not be relevant. The outcome feedback had 25% added noise to simulate real-world experience-based learning. Judgmental strategies acquired were measured by individual multiple linear regression analyses of a test phase (with no feedback) and were compared with self-ratings of cue relevance. In a third experiment, participants were instructed explicitly on cue relevance, with no training phase. The pattern of results suggested that both implicit and explicit cognitive processes influenced judgments and that they may have been sensitive to different task manipulations in the learning phase. On more complex tasks, despite weak explicit learning, explicit processes continued to influence judgments, producing a decrement in performance. These findings explain why studies of expert judgment often show only moderate levels of self-insight, since people have only partial access to the processes determining their judgments.

Cognition↗
PubMed2003

Judging confidence influences decision processing in comparative judgments.

Current theories of confidence in human judgment assume that confidence and the decision it is based on are inextricably tied to the same process (decisional locus theories) or that confidence processing begins only once the primary decision has been completed (postdecisional locus theories). In the absence of auxiliary assumptions, however, neither class of theory permits the judgment of confidence to affect primary decision processing. In the present study, we examined the effect of rendering confidence judgments on the properties of the decision process in a sensory discrimination task. An examination of the properties of the time taken to determine confidence (i.e., the time taken to render the judgment of confidence) revealed clear evidence of postdecisional confidence processing. Concomitantly, the requirement of confidence judgments was found to substantially increase decisional response times, suggesting that some confidence processing occurs during the primary decision process. We discuss the implications of these findings for contemporary models of confidence in human judgment.

Adult↗
PubMed2000

Sex differences in duration judgments: a meta-analytic review.

We quantitatively reviewed human sex differences in the magnitude and variability of duration judgments. Data from 4,794 females and 4,688 males yielded 87 effect size estimates of magnitude and 28 of variability. The overall sex difference in duration judgment magnitude was small but statistically significant. It was moderated by whether study participants knew in advance (prospective paradigm) or only later (retrospective paradigm) that they would be required to judge duration. Although prospective judgments showed no overall sex effect, some levels of moderator variables showed a small but statistically significant effect. Retrospective judgments showed a larger subjective-to-objective duration ratio for females than for males, and several variables moderated this effect. Females' judgments also showed more intersubject variability than did males' judgments. Relative to males, females sustain attention to time more in the prospective paradigm and have better episodic memory in the retrospective paradigm.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1989

A comparison of the clinical judgment process in experienced registered nurses and student nurses.

The purpose of this study was to analyze the clinical judgment process used by registered nurses identified as highly-skilled judgment-makers (HSJMs) and student nurses. Two areas of the clinical judgment process were explored: the type and number of cues elicited, and the judgment process. Thirteen students within a month of graduation, and 13 HSJMs participated in this study. For each participant, the judgment task was the initial assessment of a hospitalized patient. Each nurse reviewed the patient's Kardex, listened to the end-of-shift report and then assessed the patient as if this was the beginning of a workshift. This nurse-patient interview was tape recorded. Each nurse was then asked to review her thoughts as short segments of the nurse-patient interview were replayed. This was also tape recorded. These tapes were transcribed, and three nurse educators rated each transcript using a judgment process rating scale. Results of this study indicated the following: the registered nurses collected significantly more cues than the students, use of each cue type was not the same, students and HSJMs collected cues in the same proportion, and total scores on the rating scale could discriminate between the student and HSJM groups.

Adult↗
PubMed2006

Thinking like a nurse: a research-based model of clinical judgment in nursing.

This article reviews the growing body of research on clinical judgment in nursing and presents an alternative model of clinical judgment based on these studies. Based on a review of nearly 200 studies, five conclusions can be drawn: (1) Clinical judgments are more influenced by what nurses bring to the situation than the objective data about the situation at hand; (2) Sound clinical judgment rests to some degree on knowing the patient and his or her typical pattern of responses, as well as an engagement with the patient and his or her concerns; (3) Clinical judgments are influenced by the context in which the situation occurs and the culture of the nursing care unit; (4) Nurses use a variety of reasoning patterns alone or in combination; and (5) Reflection on practice is often triggered by a breakdown in clinical judgment and is critical for the development of clinical knowledge and improvement in clinical reasoning. A model based on these general conclusions emphasizes the role of nurses' background, the context of the situation, and nurses' relationship with their patients as central to what nurses notice and how they interpret findings, respond, and reflect on their response.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMed2004

Do priming effects in perceptual identification and word judgment reflect different underlying mechanisms?

We examined priming of orthographically illegal nonwords in a perceptual identification task and a word judgment task in undergraduate participants. In perceptual identification, priming was significant and equivalent after structural or phonological encoding. In word judgment, priming was significant after phonological encoding but not structural encoding. In a follow-up experiment in older control participants and amnesic participants, priming in word judgment was not significant. Older control participants found the stimuli more difficult to pronounce than did undergraduate participants, and word judgment priming in undergaduate participants was significant only for the stimuli that were judged easy to pronounce. These findings demonstrate that priming in perceptual identification and word judgment extends to novel stimuli that are not linked to preexisting lexical or sublexical representations but that priming occurs at different levels in the two tasks: at a featural or orthographic level in perceptual identification and at a phonological level in word judgment.

Aged↗
PubMed2006

Impact of the Konstanz method of dilemma discussion on moral judgment in allied health students: a randomized controlled study.

The objective of the study was to determine the effect of the Konstanz method of moral dilemma discussion (KMDD) on moral judgment in allied health students. The study employed the Moral Judgment Test, translated from English into Thai and validated in 247 students, as an moral judgment instrument. The scale satisfied four validity criteria: preference hierarchy, quasi-simplex structure of stage preference, affective-cognitive parallelism, and positive correlation between education and moral competence score (C-index). Test-retest reliability at a 1-month interval was 0.90. To investigate the impact of the KMDD, 83 pharmacy technician and dental nursing students were asked to participate in the study. The subjects were randomly assigned into control (n = 41) or experimental (n = 42) groups. The experimental group participated in a 90-min KMDD once a week for 6 consecutive weeks. Students in the control group also met once a week for 6 weeks to discuss the topics not related to ethics. All subjects completed the Moral Judgment Test before and after the intervention and again 6 months later. Split-plot ANOVA of the C-indexes at the beginning revealed that the experimental and control groups were not different (20.57 +/- 13.45 and 24.98 +/- 16.12). However, the experimental group scored significantly higher than the control group did after the intervention (35.18 +/- 10.96 and 24.20 +/- 14.70) and 6 months later (33.00 +/- 11.02 and 23.67 +/- 14.35). The KMDD appears to be a practical and effective intervention for developing moral judgment in allied health students. The effect on moral judgment remains at least 6 months after the intervention.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1990

Clinical judgment analysis.

Judgement is central to the practice of medicine and occurs between making clinical observations and taking clinical decisions. Clinical judgment analysis has developed as a method of making statistically firm models of doctors' judgments. Computed models reveal the differential importance attached to items of clinical, social, or other data which are determinants of clinical decisions. These models can both reveal the causes of conflicts of judgment and may help resolve them in a way that unaided discussion cannot. Revealing experts' models to students speeds learning of diagnostic skills. Clinical judgment analysis offers a method of probing the judgments not just of students and doctors but also of patients who have shown systematic differences in their perceptions of risk and benefit. The power and relevance of clinical trials can be improved by the consistent application of judgment policies generated from both the trialists and those who will use their results.

Clinical Competence↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Critical thinking, educational preparation, and development of moral judgment among selected groups of practicing nurses.

The focus of this descriptive study was the relationship between critical thinking, educational preparation, and level of moral judgment in 79 practicing nurses. The Watson-Glaser Critical Thinking Appraisal Test was used to measure critical thinking; information on the participating nurses' educational preparation was obtained from a personal information sheet. Moral judgment was measured by Rest's Defining Issues Test. The hypothesis that critical thinking would be positively related to moral judgment was tested by Pearson product moment correlation; the obtained coefficient of .5326 was significant at the .001 level. The hypothesis that there would be a difference between professional and technical nurses' moral judgments was tested through a one-way analysis of variance. The F ratio (F [1,77] = 9.6) was significant beyond the .01 level. Data also supported the hypothesis that critical thinking and educational preparation would predict greater variance in moral judgment than either variable alone, which was tested through multiple regression analysis (F [2,75] = 18.3, p = .01). Critical thinking and education together accounted for 32.9 percent of the variance in moral judgment. Implications of the findings are discussed for nursing research, practice, and education.

Adult↗
PubMed1990

Anchoring errors in clinical-like judgments.

Anchoring errors occur when the final judgment in a series is biased in the direction of the initial judgment. Subjects (142 undergraduates) made sequential judgments about each of four cases (Alcohol Abuse, Anxiety, Depression, Antisocial Behavior). After each of five segments of case material, subjects rated the case's severity and prognosis and their own confidence in these judgments. It was found that initial judgments significantly predicted most of the later judgments, which demonstrated the anchoring effect. The anchoring effect occurred most strongly for the Antisocial and Anxiety cases, moderately for the Alcohol case, and only modestly for the Depression case. Contrary to expectation, confidence was related negatively to the occurrence of the anchoring effect; that is, anchoring was highest when confidence was low. Implications of this study are discussed.

Alcoholism↗
PubMed1998

The Influence of Self-Ratings versus Peer Ratings on Supervisors' Performance Judgments.

This study investigated the extent to which supervisors use feedback from outside sources in making performance judgments. A simulation was conducted in which participants with organizational supervisory experience made an initial performance judgment about a profiled employee. Participants then received additional information that was discrepant from their initial judgment (positive or negative) from one of two sources (the profiled employee himself or one of his peers). The direction of the discrepant information and its source interacted in determining final ratings, such that, participants were more likely to use discrepant information to alter their performance judgments in a consistent direction when the source was a peer than when the source was the employee himself. Furthermore, participants' opinions about the usefulness of peer information for performance judgments moderated this interaction. Specifically, participants who believed that information from an employee's peers was useful, were more likely to use discrepant information provided by a peer when making final performance judgments than were participants who did not believe that information from an employee's peers was useful. Copyright 1998 Academic Press.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2000

Incomplete Information, Inferences, and Individual Differences: The Case of Environmental Judgments.

A model for inference of missing information is explicated and tested in two studies (Ns = 74, 76) of judgments about two environmental issues (endangered species reintroduction and the siting of a waste processing facility). Participants made judgments of scenarios in which information relevant to the judgment was varied orthogonally and, in some cases, relevant information was missing. The results showed individual differences-as well as intraindividual differences-in the assumptions participants made about missing information and in the tendency to infer missing cues. Reported assumptions about missing information predicted some aspects of the judgments. The data for only a small minority (15%) of the participants were consistent with the inferred values model. Participants may use different methods for dealing with missing information at different times or may not generally follow either an inference or averaging model in such contexts. Less favorable judgments were given for scenarios with incomplete information (the "penalty" effect), and this effect showed individual and intraindividual variation that was related to reported assumptions about missing information. We discuss the implications of these results for societal conflicts over controversial issues and for understanding the sources of individual differences in judgments. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2005

Dissociation between emotion and personality judgments: convergent evidence from functional neuroimaging.

Cognitive neuroscientists widely agree on the importance of providing convergent evidence from neuroimaging and lesion studies to establish structure-function relationships. However, such convergent evidence is, in practice, rarely provided. A previous lesion study found a striking double dissociation between two superficially similar social judgment processes, emotion recognition and personality attribution, based on the same body movement stimuli (point-light walkers). Damage to left frontal opercular (LFO) cortices was associated with impairments in personality trait attribution, whereas damage to right postcentral/supramarginal cortices was associated with impairments in emotional state attribution. Here, we present convergent evidence from fMRI in support of this double dissociation, with regions of interest (ROIs) defined by the regions of maximal lesion overlap from the previous study. Subjects learned four emotion words and four trait words, then watched a series of short point-light walker body movement stimuli. After each stimulus, subjects saw either an emotion word or a trait word and rated how well the word described the stimulus. The LFO ROI exhibited greater activity during personality judgments than during emotion judgments. In contrast, the right postcentral/supramarginal ROI exhibited greater activity during emotion judgments than during personality judgments. Follow-up experiments ruled out the possibility that the LFO activation difference was due to word frequency differences. Additionally, we found greater activity in a region of the medial prefrontal cortex previously associated with "theory of mind" tasks when subjects made personality, as compared to emotion judgments.

Adult↗
PubMed1998

Judgment of facial expressions and depression persistence.

In research it has been demonstrated that cognitive and interpersonal processes play significant roles in depression development and persistence. The judgment of emotions displayed in facial expressions by depressed patients allows for a better understanding of these processes. In this study, 48 major depression outpatients and healthy control subjects, matched on the gender of the patients, judged facial expressions as to the emotions the expressions displayed. These judgments were conducted at the patients' outpatient admission (T1). The depression severity of the patients was measured at T1, 13 weeks later (T2) and at a 6-month follow-up (T3). It was found that the judgment of negative emotions in the facial expressions was related to both the depression severity at T1 and depression persistence (T2 and T3), whereas the judgment of positive emotions was not related to the patients' depression. The judgment of the emotion of sadness was the best predictor of the patients' depression persistence. Additionally, it was found that the patients judged significantly more sadness in the facial expressions than the control subjects. These findings are related to previous data of facial expression judgments of depressed patients and future research directions are discussed.

Adult↗
PubMed1999

Judgment analysis in clinical nephrology.

To ameliorate the clinical performance of nephrologists, improving their clinical judgment is crucial. No methodology for judgment analysis in nephrology is currently available. Therefore, we designed a trial to assess the intraphysician consistency of the judgment of typical non-end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients by 24 board-certified nephrologists. The participants were asked to analyze cases to determine the interobserver variability with respect to diagnosis, therapy, prognosis, and strategy of follow-up. They were unaware that every patient was presented on 2 occasions separated by a period of 6 months. Of the 1,288 questionnaires that were completed, 28 cases belonged to 1 of the following 3 groups: (A) patients once with, once without renal histology, (B) patients twice without histology, and (C) patients twice with histology. Only cases of group (A) differed at the 2 occasions of assessment with respect to knowledge of histology. The results from the first and second assessment were compared and analyzed. The median (95% confidence interval) percentages of changed diagnoses were 64% (59% to 68%), 50% (44% to 62%), and 33% (26% to 47%) in groups A, B, and C, respectively, indicating large intraobserver variability. The frequency of changes in diagnoses declined with the degree of confidence in the first diagnosis in all 3 groups. The subjective desire to know the histology was without impact on the frequency of changes in diagnoses. However, a knowledge of the histology enhanced the degree of confidence in the diagnoses. Interestingly, the enormous variability in changing diagnoses from one analysis to the other was not reflected by corresponding changes in the judgment of prognosis, therapy to be prescribed, or strategy of follow-up. The individual judgment with respect to diagnosis of clinical cases is inconsistent and highly dependent on the subjective degree of confidence in the diagnosis. The practical relevant consequences traditionally derived from a diagnosis (therapy, prognosis, and strategy of follow-up) are only marginally, if at all, affected by changing the diagnosis. Thus, the utility of "diagnosis" for judgment analysis in clinical nephrology should be reconsidered.

Adult↗
PubMed2004

Reproducible immunohistochemical criteria based on multiple raters' judgments for expression of thymidine phosphorylase in breast cancer tissue.

In order to accurately determine the expression of thymidine phosphorylase (TP) in breast cancer, it is important to develop an appropriate system for immunohistochemical staining evaluation. Three raters, pathologists A-C, independently judged the status of TP in both cancer cells and cancer stromal tissue in 586 breast cancers immunohistochemically. TP expression levels were categorized into four groups (scores 0-3), and scores of 2 and 3 were considered as positive. Interrater and intrarater agreement levels in the judgment of TP expression were analyzed by the kappa statistics. By combining three raters' judgments, we sought for the optimal evaluation system that generates the best concordance among all judgments. The numbers of TP-positive cases were 294 (50.2%), 309 (52.1%) and 344 (58.7%) for cancer cells and were 315 (53.8%), 383 (65.4%) and 397 (67.7%) for cancer stromal tissue in the judgments by pathologists A, B, and C, respectively. There was no correlation of TP immunostaining between cancer cells and cancer stroma tissue. Interrater agreement levels were substantial for cancer cells (kappa = 0.652) and moderate for cancer stroma tissue (kappa = 0.438). Intrarater agreement level for TP judgment by pathologists A, B, or C was substantial to almost perfect for cancer cells (kappa = 0.755-0.880), and for cancer stromal tissue (kappa = 0.620-0.752). The level of TP expression estimated under the majority system and the total scoring system setting a cut-off score between 4 and 5 revealed the highest concordance with the three raters' judgments. To accurately evaluate the TP status in breast cancer tissue, three or more raters are needed and the majority system and total scoring system appear appropriate.

Breast Neoplasms↗
PubMed1985

Another look at sex stereotypes and social judgments: an analysis of the social perceiver's use of subjective probabilities.

Locksley, Borgida, Brekke, and Hepburn (1980) assert that subjects fall prey to the base-rate fallacy when they make stereotype-related trait judgments. They found that subjects ignored their stereotypes when trait judgments were made in the presence of trait-related behavioral information. The present article reexamines those findings with respect to two issues: (a) the use of a normative criterion in comparison with subjects' judgments and (b) the level of analysis (group vs. individual) of subjects' judgments. We conducted a replication of the Locksley et al. (1980) Study 2, and the results were examined with respect to these two issues. We found no support for the base-rate fallacy. When a Bayesian normative criterion was constructed for each subject based on the subject's own stereotype judgments and was compared with assertiveness judgments made in the presence of individuating information, there was no evidence that subjects ignored or underused their stereotypes as the base-rate fallacy predicts.

Assertiveness↗