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PubMed2005

[Out-of-pocket health expenditures by non-elderly and elderly persons in Korea].

OBJECTIVES: The purpose of this study was to determine the impact of the sociodemographic and health characteristics on the out-of-pocket health spending of the individuals aged 20 and older in Korea. METHODS: We used the data from the 2001 National Public Health and Nutrition Survey. The final sample size was 26,154 persons. Multiple linear regression models were used according to the age groups, that is, one model was used for those people under the age of sixty-five and the other was used for those people aged sixty-five and older. In these analyses, the expenditures were transformed to a logarithmic scale to reduce the skewness of the results. RESULTS: Out-of-pocket health expenditures for those people under the age of 65 averaged 14,800 won per month, whereas expenditures for those people aged 65 and older averaged 27,200 won per month. In the regression analysis, the insurance type, resident area, self-reported health status, acute or chronic condition and bed-disability days were the statistically significant determinants for both age groups. Gender and age were statistically significant determinants only for the non-elderly. CONCLUSIONS: The findings from this study show that the mean out-of-pocket health expenditures varied according to the age groups and also several diverse characteristics. Thus, policymakers should consider the out-of-pocket health expenditure differential between the elderly and non-elderly persons. Improvement of the insurance coverage for the economically vulnerable subgroups that were identified in this study should be carefully considered. In addition, it is necessary to assess the impact of out-of-pocket spending on the peoples' health care utilization.

Adult↗
PubMed2007

Explaining China's regional health expenditures using LM-type unit root tests.

This paper investigates the relationship between health care expenditure, income, and other factors that are not related to income for China with pooled cross-section and time series data. To study the stationarity property of these variables, we use panel Lagrange Multiplier (LM) unit root tests that allow for structural changes. To perform the LM unit root tests, we employ finite-sample critical values derived through the bootstrap method, instead of relying on the critical values from the asymptotic normal distribution. An important finding based on the estimated panel cointegrated regressions is that the government budget deficits have a significant long-run impact on China's health care expenditure. This provides supportive evidence on the differences between rich and poor areas in China's health care financing policy, and the substantial disparities in health service coverage in China.

China↗
PubMed1989

[What is the proportion of health expenditures contributed by the population of Czechoslovakia?].

The paper provides information on the participation of resources in the financing of health services (nation-wide, decentralized and individual). The author informs the readers on the amount and distribution of expenses of the population for health services (indirect and direct); with their structure and ratio in relation to basic social characteristics and groups of different households. She compares Czechoslovakia and Hungary, based on household consumption data (by social groups). In the conclusion the author indicates that individual resources spent by the population on health are, and will remain in future, only supplementary.

Czechoslovakia↗
PubMed1991

Health expenditures in Texas for 1987.

Total, per capita, and state government health spending by category of service for 1987 were estimated along with the distribution of spending by sources of payment. Definitions, methods, and sources of data are similar to those used by the US Health Care Financing Administration in estimating national health care expenditures and payments. Comparisons are made with prior-years' spending and with estimates of spending at the national level. Spending and financing patterns are identified and possible explanations are discussed.

Health Expenditures↗
PubMed1996

National health expenditure limits: the case for a global budget process.

The health reform cost-containment debate has set up a dichotomy between market and regulatory approaches. Expenditures are excessive in the American health system because there is no effective constraint on aggregate demand, and the rigid limits imposed by sectoral global budgets in other nations do not effectively use supply side forces to achieve efficiency. The case for an intermediate option is presented, a process that can flexibly encompass both what buyers are willing to pay and what suppliers are willing to accept. A negotiated contracting process for multiple payors and multiple providers could constrain aggregate demand and harness provider incentives.

Arizona↗
PubMed1984

National health expenditures, 1983.

Although growing more slowly than in recent years, spending for health continued to account for an increasing share of the Nation's gross national product. In 1983, spending for health amounted to 10.8 percent of the gross national product, or $1,459 per person. Public programs financed 40 percent of all personal health care spending. Medicare and Medicaid expended $91 billion in benefits, 29 percent of all spending for personal health. New estimates of spending in calendar year 1983, along with revised measures of the benefits paid by private health insurers, are presented here.

Health Expenditures↗
PubMed2003

Stationarity of health expenditures and GDP: evidence from panel unit root tests with heterogeneous structural breaks.

This paper re-examines the stationarity of national health care expenditures and GDP in a panel setting utilizing data from 20 OECD countries over the period from 1960 to 1997. Previous research in this area has recognized the drawback of not allowing for structural breaks in their unit root tests and noted that their empirical results may not be robust. We advance the literature by utilizing a recently developed panel LM unit root test that allows for heterogeneous level shifts. In contrast to previous analyses that did not consider breaks, our results reject the unit root null hypothesis for both series.

Data Interpretation, Statistical↗
PubMed2003

Prior health expenditures and risk sharing with insurers competing on quality.

Insurers can exploit the heterogeneity within risk-adjustment classes to select the good risks because they have more information than the regulator on the expected expenditures of individual insurees. To counteract this cream skimming, mixed systems combining capitation and cost-based payments have been adopted that do not, however, generally use the past expenditures of insurees as a risk adjuster. In this article, two symmetric insurers compete for clients by differentiating the quality of service offered to them according to some private information about their risk. In our setting it is always welfare improving to use prior expenditures as a risk adjuster.

Economic Competition↗
PubMed2002

Basic patterns in national health expenditure.

Analysed in this paper are national health accounts estimates for 191 WHO Member States for 1997, using simple comparisons and linear regressions to describe spending on health and how it is financed. The data cover all sources - out-of-pocket spending, social insurance contributions, financing from government general revenues and voluntary and employment-related private insurance - classified according to their completeness and reliability. Total health spending rises from around 2-3% of gross domestic product (GDP) at low incomes (< 1000 US dollars per capita) to typically 8-9% at high incomes (> 7000 US dollars). Surprisingly, there is as much relative variation in the share for poor countries as for rich ones, and even more relative variation in amounts in US dollars. Poor countries and poor people that most need protection from financial catastrophe are the least protected by any form of prepayment or risk-sharing. At low incomes, out-of-pocket spending is high on average and varies from 20-80% of the total; at high incomes that share drops sharply and the variation narrows. Absolute out-of-pocket expenditure nonetheless increases with income. Public financing increases faster, and as a share of GDP, and converges at high incomes. Health takes an increasing share of total public expenditure as income rises, from 5-6% to around 10%. This is arguably the opposite of the relation between total health needs and need for public spending, for any given combination of services. Within public spending, there is no convergence in the type of finance - general revenue versus social insurance. Private insurance is usually insignificant except in some rich countries.

Developed Countries↗
PubMed1996

National health expenditures, 1995.

This article presents data on health care spending for the United States, covering expenditures for various types of medical services and products and their sources of funding from 1960 to 1995. In 1995, $988.5 billion was spent to purchase health care in the United States, up 5.5 percent from 1994. Growth in spending between 1993 and 1995 was the slowest in more than three decades, primarily because of slow growth in private health insurance and out-of-pocket spending. As a result, the share of health spending funded by private sources fell, reflecting the influence of increased enrollment in managed care plans.

Advertising↗
PubMed1977

National health expenditures, fiscal year 1976.

The Nation's spending for health in fiscal year 1976 reached $139.3 billion, or $638 per person, according to preliminary figures. This total was 14 percent higher than the $122.2 billion spent for health in 1975. In the 2 years since price controls on the health industry were lifted, expenditures have risen $33.0 billion (31 percent). During this period, the economy has grown at a relatively slow pace with the gross national product increasing 18 percent. Thus, the percentage of the GNP attributed to health care reached 8.6 percent in 1976. Public and private spending rose 16 percent and 13 percent, respectively, in 1976, with the rise in public expenditures appreciably below the 22-percent increase of 1975. Third-party financing affected slightly more than two-thirds of all personal health care--the private insurance share at 26 percent and that of government 40 percent.

Education, Medical↗