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PubMedDate not supplied

Gymnastic injuries: the Virginia experience 1982-1983.

Gymnastics has undergone a tremendous increase in popularity largely due to exposure during the Olympics. The injury rate in gymnastics is exceeded only by football, wrestling, and softball. A prospective analysis of club level gymnastic injuries over one season (1982-83) was conducted. Complete responses from 15 clubs (2,558 participants) were obtained. Parameters of clubs followed were: skill level, student, instructor ratio, safety equipment, and conditioning and warm-up exercises. Data obtained from each participant were: injuries sustained, event in which injury occurred, setting of injury, type of injury, and duration of disability. Results were 62 injuries among 542 competitive and 2,016 noncompetitive level athletes (5.3 per 100 competitors and 0.7 per 100 beginners). Of the 62 injuries, 51 were acute and 11 chronic. Twenty-one injuries occurred during floor exercises, 13 on beam, 9 on vault, 6 on uneven parallel bars, and 2 on springboard. Acute injuries included 21 sprains, 16 fractures, 6 contusions, 4 dislocations, and 4 muscle strains. A significant finding was the increased frequency of acute injury seen at dismount. Also there was a positive correlation between duration of frequency of practice (fatigue) and injury rate. We would define a high risk gymnast as one who is performing at an advanced competitive level, performing floor or beam exercises, and practicing more than 20 hours per week.

Athletic Injuries↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Women's gymnastics injuries. A 5-year study.

A 5-year prospective study on the time course of women's gymnastics injuries was conducted on a successful NCAA Division I team. Gymnasts recorded injuries on a computer terminal or via computer dot sheets immediately before each training session, including the injured body part, the event or activity, and the date of the injury. The definition of injury was "any damaged body part that would interfere with training." Athletes recorded injuries on the 1st day of onset and subsequently until the injury was healed. The initial onset of injury was considered a new injury. Subsequent records of the injury were considered continuing injury. Thirty-seven athletes participated through five collegiate seasons. They accounted for 5602 total training exposures with an average of 151.4 exposures per athlete. The analyses showed that gymnasts trained with an injury approximately 71% of the exposures, and a new injury could be expected from a gymnast during approximately 9% of the exposures. The largest number of injuries were of the repetitive stress syndrome type. The time series information showed that total injuries tended to increase until the middle of the competitive season, while new injuries showed prominent increases during specific training periods and during competition preparation and performance.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Women's intercollegiate gymnastics. Injury patterns and "permanent" medical disability.

A prospective study was established to record the patterns of injury incurred by all members of women's college gymnastics team. Twenty-six women were followed over a 4-year period (53 gymnast seasons) from 1983 to 1987. To identify which injuries resulted in persisting impairment, these same athletes were contacted again 3 years later. The 26 athletes sustained 106 injuries. Sixty (57%) of these were of acute onset and were related to an identifiable gymnastics event. The remaining 46 (43%) were of gradual onset or overuse injuries. For the follow-up phase, 22 of the 26 women were contacted from 10 to 70 months (38.5 average) after completion of their gymnastics careers. Forty-five percent of the injuries recorded in their competitive years still bothered them at the time of followup, especially low back, ankle, great toe, shoulder, and knee injuries. Athletic and recreational activity exacerbated the complaints. Twenty-nine percent felt that their sports activity level was now limited. Forty-six percent felt that their injury was at less than full recovery, yet most felt that they were capable of strenuous physical activity and continued to be active despite complaints such as pain and stiffness.

Adult↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Factors associated with wrist pain in the young gymnast.

We conducted a cross-sectional survey of 52 nonelite gymnasts (32 girls, 20 boys; average age, 11.8 years) to assess their history of training and wrist pain within the last 6 months. An intensity index was created using the number of training hours per week and the athletes' skill levels. Wrist pain was prevalent in 38 (73%) of the gymnasts. Gymnasts with wrist pain were older (12.6 years versus 9.7 years; P = 0.0002), trained more hours per week (13.5 versus 7.7; P = 0.0002), trained at a higher skill level (P = 0.01), and began training at an older age (7.0 years versus 5.1 years; P = 0.006). Analysis of intensity versus age suggested that a threshold of training intensity may be important in the development of wrist pain. Logistical regression found these factors to be independently associated with wrist pain: intensity (P = 0.036), age > 10 years (P = 0.018), age < 14 years (P = 0.016), and the age of initiation of training (P = 0.020). This study demonstrates that wrist pain is a common problem among nonelite young gymnasts. Training intensity, relative to the age of the participant and the age when training was initiated, appears to be an important determinant of the development of wrist pain in this population.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Growth and pubertal development in elite female rhythmic gymnasts.

Optimal growth depends upon both environmental and genetic factors. Among environmental factors that could alter growth and sexual maturation are stress and intensive physical training. The influence of these factors has been documented in a variety of sports, but there is limited information on rhythmic gymnasts, who have entirely different training and performance requirements. The study was conducted during the 13th European Championships in Patras, Greece, and included 255 female rhythmic gymnasts, aged 11-23 yr. The study included measurement of height and weight, assessment of breast and pubic hair development, estimation of body fat and skeletal maturation, and registration of menarcheal age and parental height. Gymnasts were taller than average height for age, with mean height above and mean weight below the 50th percentile. Actual height SD score was positively correlated to weight SD score (P < 0.001), number of competitions (P = 0.01), and body mass index (BMI; P < 0.001). Predicted adult height SD score was positively correlated to weight SD score (P < 0.001) and negatively to body fat (P = 0.004). There was a delay in skeletal maturation of 1.3 yr (P < 0.001). Pubertal development was following bone age rather than chronological age. The mean age of menarche was significantly delayed from that of their mothers and sisters (P = 0.008 and P = 0.05, respectively), was positively correlated to the intensity of training and to the difference between chronological age and bone age (P < 0.001 and P = 0.002, respectively), and was negatively correlated to body fat (P < 0.001). In the elite female rhythmic gymnasts, psychological and somatic efforts have profound effects on growth and sexual development. Despite these aberrations, adult height is not expected to be affected.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2002

Growth retardation in artistic compared with rhythmic elite female gymnasts.

We studied 129 female rhythmic gymnasts (RG) and 142 female artistic gymnasts (AG) who participated in the 1999 Gymnastics World Championship for RG in Osaka, Japan, and the 1999 and 2001 Gymnastics World Championships for AG in Tianjin, China (n = 48), and Ghent, Belgium (n = 94), respectively. RG were taller than average, with a mean height SD score above the 50th percentile, whereas AG were relatively short, with a mean height SD score below the 50th percentile. Both RG and AG followed their respective reported target height SD score, which was above the 50th percentile for the RG and below the 50th percentile for the AG. The RG followed a growth pattern that was higher than their reported target height, whereas AG exhibited a negative growth pattern. RG and AG weighed less than the population mean, with the mean weight for age below the 50th percentile for both groups. RG were taller than AG (t = 17.15; P < 0.001), with a higher reported target height SD score (t = 6.44; P < 0.001), a greater Delta height-reported target height (t = 2.74; P < 0.001), and a lower mean body fat (t = -11.83; P < 0.001) and body mass index (t = -10.73; P < 0.001) than AG. AG started their training at an earlier age than RG (t = 4.13; P < 0.001). Using multiple regression analysis, actual height SD score was independently influenced positively by weight SD score for both RG (b = 0.421; t = 4.317; P < 0.001) and AG (b = 1.404; t = 16.514; P = <0.001), and by reported target height only for RG (b = 0.299; t = 3.139; P = 0.002), and negatively by body mass index only for AG (b = -0.80; t = -9.88; P < 0.001). In conclusion, in elite female AG, a deterioration of growth potential was observed, whereas in RG the genetic predisposition to growth was preserved.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1998

The side-to-side differences of bone mass at proximal femur in female rhythmic sports gymnasts.

This cross-sectional study examined the side-to-side differences of the bone mineral density (BMD) at proximal femora in female rhythmic sports gymnasts (RSGs). The hypothesis on which the study is based is that gymnasts use a different leg in take-off (left leg) and in landing (right leg) and therefore differ in the loading for the left and right legs. The gymnasts made up two groups: the regular group, which consisted of 15 regular players who had trained for about 28 h/week, and the substitutes group, which consisted of 8 substitute players who had trained for about 12 h/week. The control group consisted of 10 nonathletic college women who had not participated in any kind of regular sports activity. BMD (g/cm2) was measured in three hip sites using the XR-26 dual-energy X-ray absorptiometer scanner. Muscle strength at knee extensors (EXT) and flexors (FLX) was examined using an isokinetic dynamometer (CYBEX6000), and the vertical ground reaction force was determined with a force platform during take-off and landing movements. In the regular players, the BMDs of the left leg were significantly higher than those of the right leg at the femoral necks, greater trochanters, and Ward's triangles (p < 0.01 to approximately 0.005). The side-to-side differences were 4.7 to approximately 9.6%. Regarding the strength parameters, the left side was greater than the right side significantly at EXT 60 degrees/s (p < 0.01), although the overall side-to-side difference was small. In the substitutes, the BMDs at the three sites mentioned above were also higher in the left leg than the right, but the side-to-side difference was statistically significant only at Ward's triangles (93%, p < 0.05). The side-to-side difference of strength was not significant. In the controls, there were small left-to-right differences of the BMDs, ranging from -1.8 to 0.5%, which was significantly lower than in the regular players at each site. The overall average strength measurements were larger in the right leg than in the left except at the 120 degrees/s. The side-to-side difference was statistically significant at EXT 30 degrees/s and 60 degrees/s (p < 0.05). The peak force was greater in take-off than in landing, and the unit time force during take-off was significantly greater than that during landing (p < 0.001). In conclusion, regarding the side-to-side difference of the BMD at proximal femora, our results demonstrate: that the left leg for take-off had higher measurements than the right leg for landing in both gymnasts' groups, which accounts for the vertical ground reaction force during take-off being greater than that during landing; that the difference in the regular players group was greater than that in the substitute group, which can be explained because the regular players practiced much more than the substitutes did; and that there was no difference in the control group.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Longitudinal tracking of muscular power changes of NCAA Division I collegiate women gymnasts.

Gymnastics relies upon power as a critical component of sports-specific fitness. The purpose of this study was to monitor long-term training adaptations in the power of National Collegiate Athletics Association Division I women gymnasts. Twenty members of a women's gymnastic team (aged 18-22) were tracked over 3 years with the first year a baseline year of testing. Whole body power for the counter-movement (CMJ) and squat (SJ) vertical jump was obtained via force plate analyses at 2 assessment time points during each year (February and November). Results showed significant (p < or = 0.05) and continued increases in peak power output in the CMJ and SJ at each biannual assessment. Improvements of 46% (+1010 W) for the CMJ and 43% (+900 W) for the SJ were observed at the end of the tracking period. Peak power for the CMJ and SJ were recorded at 3210 W (+/-350 W) and 3000 W (+/-152 W), respectively. Associated improvements in the time to peak power of 36% (-0.239 second) and 38% (-0.151 second) were also found for the CMJ and SJ. There were no significant changes in body mass or total skinfold thickness, however, a shift toward improved fat free mass (i.e., lean muscle mass) was apparent. These data underscore the importance that specificity, and more importantly power development, should play in the conditioning of collegiate women gymnasts' training programs.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2000

Expertise in women's gymnastic judging: an observational approach.

Observation was used to study expertise in gymnastic judging. 10 expert and 10 novice gymnastic judges were videotaped while judging at actual competitions. Analyses showed that novice judges, as compared to expert judges, spent less time looking at the gymnast perform, spent more time looking at the scoring paper, and were less able to engage in the dual-task demands required in gymnastic judging.

Achievement↗
PubMed2004

Relationships between physiological and psychological stress and salivary immunoglobulin A among young female gymnasts.

We investigated whether psychological and physical stress induced by training or competition influence the secretory immune system among 12 highly trained young female gymnasts. Salivary levels of secretory IgA and cortisol responses to gymnastic training session or competition were assessed a total of 10 times, immediately before and after two training sessions which had different intensities and just before and after a major competition. These parameters were also measured on two non-training days. The Brunel Mood Scale was also used to assess the gymnasts's overall mood on each test day. IgA:Protein ratio was calculated. Significant decreases in this ratio were found after each exercise session, related to the physiological and psychological stress induced by exercise. Over the 5-mo. training period the presession IgA:Protein ratios were unchanged. Gymnasts registered any episodes of upper respiratory tract infection. Bouts of exercise induce transitory effects on the immune system in relation to the workload and the stress induced by the exercise without any relation to increased susceptibility to illness in children.

Body Mass Index↗
PubMed2001

Hormonal and metabolic response in elite female gymnasts undergoing strenuous training and supplementation with SUPRO Brand Isolated Soy Protein.

BACKGROUND: This study evaluates the metabolic and hormonal response in elite female gymnasts undergoing strenuous training and supplementation with SUPRO Brand Isolated Soy Protein. METHODS. EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN: 14 top female gymnasts (Romanian Olympic Team), took part in a study to examine their hormonal metabolic profile and to investigate any possible changes resulting from a 4-month program of strenuous training and daily supplementation with soy protein at a level of 1 g/kg body weight. Gymnasts wtare randomly assigned to one of two groups seven to the Supplemented Group (A) and seven to the Non-Supplemented Group (B). Both groups took part in the same program, which consisted of strenuous training for 4-6 hours/day (except on Sunday, controlled food intake and supplements including vitamins and minerals. Group A received a supplement of Sports Beverage Protein Mix with SUPRO Isolated Soy Protein (ISP) twice daily. Group B received a placebo identical in appearance and flavour. Selected parameters were measured before and after the 4-month training program (lean body mass, fat mass, serum hemoglobin, protein, fats, urea and creatinine, liver enzymes, serum total calcium and magnesium, immunoglobulins, urinary mucoproteins, serum T3 and T4, estradiol, progesterone, prolactin, testosterone and urinary 17-ketosteroids). RESULTS: Results demonstrated that the Supplemented Group (A) had an increase in lean body mass and serum levels of prolactin (p < 0.01) and T4 and a decrease in serum alkaline phosphetases (p < 0.01). The Non-Supplemented Group (B) had a decreased level of serum T4 and an increased level of urinary mucoproteins (p < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS: Our preliminary conclusions might suggest lower metabolic-hormonal stress in elite female gymnasts undergoing strenuous training and who received daily supplementation with isolated soy protein.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1996

[The rise of remedial gymnastics [heilgymnastiek].

In this article the introduction and further development of remedial gymnastics in the Netherlands from 1840 until about 1900 is described. In the second half of the 19th century there was an increasing interest for the application of remedial gymnastics as a form of conservative medical treatment. Contrary to what one would expect, it were not physicians but mostly physical education teachers who dedicated themselves to this kind of treatment. The activities of these so-called 'heilgymnasten' gradually gained recognition from the public and the physicians. The lack of a proper training school, research facilities and a forum for exchanging experiences forced the 'heilgymnasten' to raise the level of their skills and knowledge by themselves. During the eighties, a period in which the process of differentiation and specialization in the field of medicin increased, conflicts between members of the medical profession and 'heilgymnastern' occurred more frequently. Some of the latter decided to form an organization that would look after their interests and would enable them to increase the professional level of the 'heilgymnasten'. On September 1st 1889 the 'Society for practising remedial gymnastics in the Netherlands' [Genootschap ter beoefening van de Heilgymnastiek in Nederland] was founded. The main aims of its members were to establish a state exam, a public training school as well as to ensure proper legislation for this new profession. The founding of the Socieity lifted the controversy between physicians and 'heilgymnasten' from the level of a dispute between individuals to that of a battle over the domain between professional organizations. What was at stake was the autonomy in the field of remedial gymnastics. This confrontation lasted until the Second World War. In 1942 the Dutch 'heilgymnasten' got the legal status for their profession that they had wanted so desperately.

Gymnastics↗
PubMed1990

[Passive gymnastics].

There is at the moment a continuous proliferation of gymnasium centres, among which the so-called "Centres of passive or activated gymnastic" have recently assumed a particular importance. The Swedish Doctor Zander, in the XIX century, was a promoter of this kind of gymnastics, utilizing instruments invented by him. These instruments were able to perform fundamental movements without needing the active participation of the person involved. Today's machinery for passive gymnastics no longer have the therapy or rehabilitation as their main purpose, but their present first purpose is more aesthetic than scientific. The ancient and modern machinery for passive gymnastics, is sometimes an imitation of the action of a massager.

Equipment and Supplies↗
PubMed1991

Influence of intensive exercise on insulin-like growth factor I, thyroid and steroid hormones in female gymnasts.

Long lasting intensive physical exercise leads to growth retardation. Short-limbed girls are selected for the training as gymnasts. In a preliminary study with 9 gymnasts a significant decrease of the IGF-I concentration was found after intensive 3-day exercise. This experiment was repeated with 16 girls (11.7 +/- 0.8 years old). The higher the initial DHEA-S and E2 concentration of the gymnasts, the higher were the IGF-I basal levels. The intensive training resulted in the following changes (basal after exercise): IGF-I: 247 +/- 86-->188 +/- 77 ng/ml, T3: 2.4 +/- 0.4-->2.1 +/- 0.3 nmol/l, T4: 96 +/- 15-->98 +/- 19 nmol/l, DHEA-S: 930 +/- 636-->1018 +/- 701 nmol/l, testosterone: 1.5 +/- 0.3-->1.9 +/- 0.4 nmol/l, cortisol: 824 +/- 272-->799 +/- 219 nmol/l. During the 3-day intensive training, the parallel decrease of IGF-I and T3 concentrations in each sportswomen is particularly impressive. Apart from the sequelae of 'negative' selection, the low T3-syndrome, the anti-insulin effect of high GH secretion and the elevated cortisol concentration are responsible for the growth depression, retardation in bone age and the higher incidence of skeletal problems in these gymnasts with 'exercise-induced' delay in development.

Child↗
PubMed1990

Injury patterns of female competitive club gymnasts.

Gymnast and injury information on 178 competitive female gymnasts was collected through questionnaires and interviews in a 3-year prospective epidemiologic study. The injury rate was 30/100 gymnasts/year, .52 injuries/1000 h. Injury rates excluding risk exposure increased with competitive level, but the top level gymnasts had the lowest rate per 1000 h of practice. Fractures of the wrist, fingers and toes were most common, followed by sprains of ankle and knee. Nearly 40% of the sudden-onset injuries occurred in the floor event. 'Missed move' was most frequently cited as the injury mechanism, while somersaults and handsprings were the most injury-producing moves. Most injuries happened with moves that were basic or moderately difficult and well-established. There was an increased chance of injury when the gymnast had been on the apparatus for an extended period of time. One major source of injury is loss of concentration, and a key to injury prevention may be the reorganization of the practice session.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1985

Physiologic aspects of gymnastics.

It should be evident from this discussion that there has been little research on gymnastics specifically. A great deal of applied work on the physiology of gymnastics needs to be explored. The bulk of research recently has been related to skill performance (biomechanics). The limited data indicated that the gymnast has the expected low aerobic capacity, due to the short time factor in competition. They are quite lean and muscular and extremely flexible about the hip and shoulders. Training for gymnastics should emphasize activities specifically related to the routine. Various methods can be used to reduce the fatigue that develops throughout the routine and improve performance of the activity. Supplemental strength training should be emphasized using multiple joint exercises.

Body Composition↗
PubMed1984

Body composition and expiratory reserve volume in female gymnasts and runners.

Previous research in this laboratory demonstrated a reduction in expiratory reserve volume of the lungs (ERV) with increasing body fatness (%F, by densitometry). The present study was done to determine if smaller ERV values could be demonstrated in lean female athletes with greater than normal upper-body muscle development. Expiratory reserve volume, vital capacity (VC), and segmental body volumes by densitometry were measured in members of two collegiate women's teams--gymnastics (G) (N = 10) and track (R) (N = 10). The runners provided a control group by being similar to gymnasts in age, weight, and body fatness, but they did not engage in upper-body weight training or gymnastic exercises. The two groups were not significantly different in body weight (means G +/- SD = 53.0 +/- 6.1 kg; means R = 50.8 +/- 4.6 kg) or %F (means G = 16.8 +/- 3.2%; means R = 14.8 +/- 3.8%), but R subjects were taller (means = 165.4 +/- 5.5 cm vs 158.7 +/- 4.8 cm, P less than 0.01). Expiratory reserve volume, expressed as a percent of VC, (ERV X VC-1) 100, was significantly (P less than 0.001) less in the gymnasts (means +/- SD = 29.7 +/- 7.1) as compared to the runners (43.1 +/- 6.4). All other lung capacities as volumes were comparable in both groups. Arm and thorax volumes indicated greater upper-body size in the G subjects (arm volume, means +/- SD of G = 4.8 +/- 0.6 liters, of R = 4.0 +/- 0.6 liters, P less than 0.01; thorax volume, means +/- SD of G = 7.8 +/- 1.4 liters, or R = 5.6 +/- 1.0 liters, P less than 0.001).(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)

Adult↗
PubMed1995

Eating disorder symptoms in female college gymnasts.

In study 1, 21 females provided both honest and dishonest answers to the Eating Disorders Inventory-2 (EDI-2). It was found that the EDI-2 can be easily faked. The fake profile was used to screen subjects in a second study, in which 25 gymnasts and 25 matched controls were assessed on symptoms of eating disorders, energy intake, menstrual history, and bone mineral density (BMD). A Hotelling's T2 test (Wilks' lambda = 0.70) revealed that the gymnast and control groups did not differ significantly (P > 0.05) on the EDI-2 subscales; however, both groups exhibited scores on the Drive For Thinness (DFT) subscale of the EDI-2 that were higher than the published average for college women. More gymnasts (61%) than controls (24%) reported an absence of their menstrual cycle of 3 months or more. A higher percentage (8/11, 73%; chi 2 = 4.7, P < 0.05) of the subgroup with elevated DFT scores (i.e., > 14) reported having this disruption of their menstrual cycle compared with those with lower DFT scores (13/33, 39%). DFT scores were negatively (P < 0.05) related to energy intake (r = -0.48) and whole body BMD (r = -0.47). It is concluded that (a) DFT scores may be useful in identifying gymnasts at risk for problems associated with eating disorders, and (b) response distortion must be considered in future research using the EDI-2.

Adult↗