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PubMed1977

The pregnant ferret as a model for studying the congenital effects of influenza virus infection in utero: infection of foetal tissues in organ culture and in vivo.

Organ cultures of ferret foetal tissues showed a similar pattern of susceptibility to influenza virus to that already observed for human foetal tissues (Rosztoczy et al., 1975); respiratory, alimentary and urogenital tissues supported the replication of influenza virus but nervous and lymphopoietic tissues (those which, in man, are associated with foetal or postnatal abnormalities) were insusceptible. In contrast to corresponding human tissues, ferret foetal placenta and amnion readily supported viral replication although both human and ferret umbilical cord were susceptible. In limited experiments, neither the membranes nor the susceptible foetal tissues became infected after intranasal inoculation of pregnant ferrets of various gestational ages. However, after intracardial inoculation of pregnant ferrets with high titre virus (ca 10(9) EBID50) virus was isolated from both foetal membranes and foetuses. The membranes became infected at early, middle and late gestation, but virus appeared to cross the placental barrier to infect foetal tissues only in late gestation. At this stage virus could be isolated not only from those foetal tissues (respiratory, alimentary and urogenital) susceptible in organ culture, but also in small amounts from tissues which were insusceptible in organ culture (heart, lymphopoietic and nervous tissue). Virus was also isolated from foetal membranes and foetuses of late gestation ferrets following intracardial inoculation with a one hundred-fold lower dose of virus which, unlike the higher dose, did not induce a maternal febrile response. The pregnant ferret appears to be a suitable model for investigating the effects on development of foetal infection with influenza virus but it may have disadvantages with regard to the nature and strength of the placental barrier.

Animals↗
PubMed1997

Distribution of technetium 99m-labeled red blood cells during isoflurane anesthesia in ferrets.

OBJECTIVE: To address the physiologic mechanism of isoflurane-associated reduction in hematologic variables in ferrets. ANIMALS: 6 young adult female ferrets. PROCEDURE: Distribution of 99mTc-labeled autologous erythrocytes was measured by serial in vivo imaging. Data were recorded in 4 ferrets, using a gamma camera, immediately prior to anesthesia, 15 minutes after 2% isoflurane anesthesia in O2 via endotracheal tube, 1 minute prior to and throughout a 10-minute phenylephrine infusion, 20 and 40 minutes after termination of the phenylephrine infusion, and 45 minutes after termination of anesthesia. Blood indices were also measured at times that paralleled those for imaging. One ferret served as a conscious control (no anesthetic administration), and another as an isoflurane control (no phenylephrine administration). RESULTS: In ferrets under anesthesia, splenic radioactivity increased from baseline of 10.2 +/- 2.0% to 38.4 +/- 3.2% (mean +/- SEM; P < 0.05) of the injected dose. Splenic radioactivity decreased to 13.4 +/- 3.8% of the injected dose during phenylephrine infusion and to near baseline for the recovery image. Splenic radioactivity in the conscious control remained constant throughout the study, whereas that of the anesthetized control was persistently increased throughout administration of isoflurane. Percentage reduction of the 15-minute sample values, compared with baseline values for all hematologic indices, was: RBC count, 33% (P < 0.05); hemoglobin concentration, 34% (P < 0.05); hematocrit, 35% (P < 0.05); and plasma protein concentration, 20% (P < 0.05). All RBC variables returned to within 7 to 14% of baseline by 45 minutes after termination of anesthesia. CONCLUSION: Isoflurane anesthesia causes splenic sequestration of RBC in ferrets that is partially reversed by phenylephrine infusion or termination of anesthesia. Thus, investigators and clinicians should be cautious when interpreting hematologic findings in isoflurane-anesthetized ferrets, and accordingly, fluid treatment and transfusion should be planned.

Anesthesia, Inhalation↗
PubMed1997

Histogenesis of ferret somatosensory cortex.

The ferret has emerged as an important animal model for the study of neocortical development. Although detailed studies of the birthdates of neurons populating the ferret visual cortex are available, the birthdates of neurons that reside in somatosensory cortex have not been determined. The current study used bromodeoxyuridine to establish when neurons inhabiting the somatosensory cortex are generated in the ferret; some animals also received injections of [3H]thymidine. In contrast to reports of neurogenesis in ferret visual cortex, most neurons populating the somatosensory cortex have been generated by birth. Although components of all somatosensory cortical layers have been produced at postnatal day 0, the layers are not distinctly formed but develop over a period of several weeks. A small number of neurons continue to be produced for a few days postnatally. The majority of cells belonging to a given layer are born over a period of approximately 3 days, although the subplate and last (layer 2) generated layer take somewhat longer. Although neurogenesis of the neocortex begins along a similar time line for visual and somatosensory cortex, the neurons populating the visual cortex lag substantially during the generation of layer 4, which takes more than 1 week for ferret visual cortex. Layer formation in ferret somatosensory cortex follows many established principles of cortical neurogenesis, such as the well-known inside-out development of cortical layers and the rostro-to-caudal progression of cell birth. In comparison with the development of ferret visual cortex, however, the generation of the somatosensory cortex occurs remarkably early and may reflect distinct differences in mechanisms of development between the two sensory areas.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Behavioural studies on the potential for direct transmission of tuberculosis from feral ferrets (Mustela furo) and possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) to farmed livestock.

Studies were conducted to evaluate the response of cattle and deer to ferrets which were sedated so they behaved like terminally tuberculous animals, and to compare this with the response of cattle, deer and sheep to sedated possums. Six groups of deer and two groups of cattle were exposed to a sedated ferret and to a sedated possum. Both livestock species showed interest in the possum by sniffing and licking it, but they only briefly touched the ferret and no licking or extended investigation was observed. The proportion of available time spent in physical contact with the possum by cattle was 7.7 times as high as for the ferret, and for the deer was 5.7 times as high. The behavioural response of three groups of sheep to a sedated possum was investigated, and sheep showed limited interest beyond viewing the possum from a distance. The amount of time spent by sheep investigating the possum was very low and the intensity of exploration was also low. For possums, at least one deer was within 1.5 m (an estimate of the distance that tuberculosis can be transmitted by aerosol) for 50.9% of observation time, and in physical contact with the possum for 9.5% of time. The figures for cattle were 69.3% and 17.3%, while those for sheep were 6.9% and 0.3%. In interactions with ferrets, the equivalent figures were 29.8% within 1.5 m and 2.2% in physical contact for cattle, and 20.8% and 1.1% for deer. Tuberculous possums commonly and tuberculous ferrets less commonly have lung lesions and/or discharging sinuses, and may excrete Mycobacterium bovis intermittently or continuously in aerosols or discharges. The exploratory behaviour of deer and cattle in this study would provide opportunities for them to become infected with M. bovis if they had contact with infectious possums, and less probably with ferrets. The response of sheep to possums suggests that they would be much less likely to contract the disease.

Journal Article↗
PubMed1983

Interference following dual inoculation with influenza A (H3N2) and (H1N1) viruses in ferrets and volunteers.

The effects of simultaneous inoculation with two attenuated influenza A viruses was studied in ferrets and volunteers. Groups of ferrets were inoculated with an influenza A (H3N2) or (H1N1), virus or a combination of both viruses: the temperature response, serum and local antibody response, and the change in nasal wash protein concentration was determined. The results showed that both viruses were attenuated for ferrets, and that inoculation with both viruses together did not cause clinical reactions. Serological studies on paired serum samples obtained from ferrets showed that both viruses when given separately infected all the inoculated animals; however, dual infection resulted in all ferrets being infected with the influenza A (H3N2) virus strain, but this infection interfered with infection by the influenza A (H1N1) strain. Similar investigations were carried out in volunteers. Again, the clinical reactions and temperature response of volunteers to infection by one or other of the viruses showed both strains to be attenuated for man even when given together. In addition, no adverse clinical reactions were seen in volunteers inoculated with both viruses simultaneously. Serum antibody studies showed that infection by influenza A (H1N1) virus interfered with infection by the influenza A (H2N2) virus strain. These results show evidence of interference by influenza A viruses; however, the direction of interference was one-way, and differed for ferrets and for volunteers.

Animals↗
PubMed1995

Relaxation in ferret ventricular myocytes: role of the sarcolemmal Ca ATPase.

In ferret ventricular myocytes the rate of intracellular Ca concentration [Ca]i decline and relaxation is remarkably fast (compared with rabbit and rat) under conditions where both the sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca uptake and Na/Ca exchange are inhibited. Here we explore the possibility that this rapid [Ca]i decline in ferret cells is attributable to the sarcolemmal Ca ATPase by using carboxyeosin (a potent inhibitor of the sarcolemmal Ca-ATPase). We compare the effects of carboxyeosin with those of elevated extracellular [Ca] ([Ca]o) (a thermodynamic approach to limit Ca transport by the sarcolemmal Ca ATPase). In rabbit cells, carboxyeosin and high [Ca]o slowed [Ca]i decline similarly and both virtually abolished [Ca]i decline when mitochondrial Ca uptake was also inhibited. In ferret cells, carboxyeosin treatment produced these same effects on [Ca]i decline, but high [Ca]o did not mimic them. Moreover, only in carboxyeosin-treated ferret cells did additional inhibition of mitochondrial Ca uptake nearly abolish [Ca]i decline. We conclude that, carboxyeosin loading can inhibit the sarcolemmal Ca-ATPase in intact myocytes; that this pump seems likely to be responsible for the much faster relaxation observed in ferret cells after block of SR Ca accumulation and Na/Ca exchange transport and that the sarcolemmal Ca pump apparently has different characteristics in rabbit and ferret ventricular myocytes.

Animals↗
PubMed1994

The antiemetic activity of granisetron against cytostatic-treatment-induced emesis in 10- to 13-week-old ferrets.

The antiemetic activity of granisetron was examined in ferrets aged 10-13 weeks. Emesis was induced by exposure to either whole-body X-irradiation (50 Gy over 10.4 min) or cyclophosphamide (80 mg/kg i.v.) plus doxorubicin (6 mg/kg i.v.). Following exposure to whole-body X-irradiation, the young ferrets vomited with a similar latency to vomit and severity of emesis to that shown by adult animals. Granisetron (0.5 mg/kg i.v.) significantly reduced (P < or = 0.05) the number of vomits and retches and two out of four animals were completely protected. Following injection of cyclophosphamide and doxorubicin, the young ferrets showed a reduced emetic response compared to adult animals. Following a dose of granisetron (0.5 mg/kg i.v.), only one out of four ferrets vomited compared to four out of four in the control group. Further experiments showed that cisplatin (12.5 mg/kg i.v.) was unable to induce vomiting in the young ferret (n = 2). Granisetron (0.5 mg/kg i.v.) was well tolerated by the young ferret and was able to reduce significantly or completely abolish emesis induced by cytostatic treatment. The data support the use of granisetron in pediatric patients and clinical trials are currently underway in this patient population.

Aging↗
PubMed1982

Establishment and characterization of ferret cells in culture.

Cells derived from the brain of a 6 wk-old ferret have been subcultured over 100 times and have undergone over 400 population doublings in vitro. These cells, referred to as Mpf cells, have an absolute efficiency of colony formation in excess of 45%, exhibit a mean population doubling time of 12.5 h, possess ferret-specific antigens, and have isozymes with electrophoretic properties that are the same as those of isozymes found in ferret liver. The cells exhibit a cytopathic effect and support the synthesis of progeny virus when they are infected with the viruses of lymphocytic choriomeningitis, Newcastle disease, pseudorabies, Sindbis, vaccinia, and vesicular stomatitis. The passage level of the Mpf cells, their elapsed number of population doublings, their possession of ferret-specific antigens, and the comigration of four isozymes obtained from these cells and ferret liver define the cells as an established line of ferret cells.

Animals↗
PubMed1986

Biochemical and radioautographic analysis of estrogen-inducible progestin receptors in female ferret brain and pituitary: correlations with effects of progesterone on sexual behavior and gonadotropin-releasing hormone-stimulated secretion of luteinizing hormone.

Cytosolic binding molecules for the synthetic progestin [3H]R5020, were isolated in vitro from several brain regions including preoptic area/anterior hypothalamus, mediobasal hypothalamus, medial amygdala and parietal cortex as well as the pituitary gland of ovohysterectomized female ferrets. Binding of [3H]R5020 to cortical cytosols was saturable, of high affinity (apparent dissociation constant of 2.0 nM), and was steroid specific. Pretreatment of ferrets with a Silastic capsule containing estradiol caused significant increments in the concentration of cytosolic R5020 binding sites in hypothalamus and pituitary gland, but not in the other brain regions studied. Brains of additional ovohysterectomized ferrets, which had been primed with estradiol prior to receiving an i.v. injection of [3H]R5020, were processed radioautographically. Intense labeling of cells was seen in the medial and lateral preoptic area, in the lateral hypothalamus, and in the ventromedial and arcuate nuclei of the hypothalamus. Radioautograms from the brains of additional ovohysterectomized ferrets given an i.v. injection of [3H]estradiol revealed labeled cells in all of the above regions, in addition to the basolateral portion of the septum, the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis, and in the anterior amygdaloid area as well as the medial and cortical nuclei of the amygdala. This distribution of neural progestin and estrogen binding sites resembles those previously reported for these steroids in the rat, guinea pig, hamster and macaque. Functional studies showed that acute s.c. implantation of a Silastic capsule containing progesterone to ovohysterectomized ferrets, which had been primed with a low dosage of estradiol, failed to augment their sexual receptivity in limited tests with stimulus males given 4 and 8 h after progesterone treatment. This result contrasts with the well-established facilitatory effect of progesterone on sexual receptivity in rat and guinea pig. Chronic exposure to a progesterone capsule caused significant reductions in sexual receptivity in ovohysterectomized ferrets which were implanted concurrently with a second Silastic capsule containing a high dosage of estradiol. Similar effects of progesterone have been reported in rat and guinea pig, but not in the rhesus monkey. Thus species differences in the ability of progesterone to facilitate or inhibit sexual receptivity are not readily explained by species differences in the neural distribution of estrogen-induced progestin receptors.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)

Animals↗
PubMed1990

Pulmonary vascular pressure profile in 2-3-week-old, 5-6-week-old and adult ferrets.

We have previously reported age-related differences in the pattern of vascular pressure drop in rabbit lungs (Raj et al., Pediatric Res. 20:1107-1111, 1986). The purpose of this study was to investigate if there were similar age related differences in the ferret lung. To determine the profile of vascular pressures and the longitudinal distribution of vascular resistance in arteries, microvessels and veins, we isolated and blood perfused lungs of 20 ferrets (8 adults greater than 6 months of age; six 5-6-week-old and six 2-3-week-old). All lungs were perfused under similar experimental conditions with blood flow adjusted to keep pulmonary artery pressure constant at approximately 20 cmH2O, when left atrial pressure was 8 cmH2O. Lungs were inflated to 6 cmH2O airway pressure with a gas mixture so that blood Po2 was greater than 100 Torr. Microvascular pressure measurements were obtained in each lung in subpleural 20-50 microns diameter arterioles and 20-50 microns diameter venules using the micropipette servonull method. Blood flow achieved in all three groups of lungs was similar. We found that in adult ferret lungs, 40% of total vascular resistance was in arteries, 40% in microvessels and 20% in veins. In 2-3-week-old and 5-6-week-old ferret lungs, the fractional distribution of resistance in arteries, microvessels and veins was similar to that in adult ferret lungs. We conclude that, unlike in the rabbit, the pulmonary vascular pressure profile does not change with age in the ferret.

Aging↗
PubMed1983

Characterization of estradiol receptors in brain cytosols from perinatal ferrets.

Studies were undertaken to characterize the binding of [3H]estradiol ([3H]E2) to blood plasma and to brain cytosols collected from perinatal ferrets of both sexes. A dialysis experiment showed that the binding capacity of plasma for [3H]E2 was low in neonatal ferrets. Saturable, high-affinity binding of [3H]E2 to cytosols prepared from ferret hypothalamus + preoptic area (H + POA), basal temporal lobe, and midbrain + brainstem (sexes pooled) was demonstrated 5 days prior to the date of expected parturition (42-day gestation), as well as on the day of birth and on postnatal days 5 and 10. The binding of E2 to cytosols prepared from H + POA and temporal lobe of newborn ferrets met established criteria for estrogen receptors: (a) it was saturable; (b) it had a high affinity (Kd approximately 10(-10) M); (c) it was apparently macromolecular since it migrated in front of a 4.7 S dansyl-bovine serum albumin marker on sucrose gradients of low ionic strength and eluted in the void volume of Sephadex LH-20 columns; (d) it was apparently proteinaceous since binding was destroyed by preincubation with pronase; and (e) it was steroid-specific. Previous research suggests that perinatal exposure to E2 causes neither behavioral defeminization nor masculinization in the developing ferret. The present findings raise the question of whether estrogens, acting via neural receptors, normally affect brain development in ferrets of either sex.

Animals↗
PubMedDate not supplied

Assessment of signs of influenza illness in the ferret model.

The ferret model of influenza A infection was evaluated to determine whether physical signs of influenza illness in addition to fever could be adequately followed. Ferrets were evaluated for nasal and systemic signs of influenza infection in a blinded, randomized protocol. Nasal signs were scored depending on the degree of nasal discharge and congestion. Systemic signs were evaluated on the basis of the activity level of ferrets. Nasal and systemic signs in ferrets challenged with influenza began to rise at peak virus shedding. This rise was coincident with the onset of the nasal inflammatory cell response. Nasal and systemic signs were statistically higher in challenged ferrets as compared with controls from 28 to 52 h after infection [P = 0.002 except at 28 h (P = 0.01)]. Despite precautions against influenza transmission, controls shed influenza virus associated with mild increases in nasal and systemic signs late in the course of the study. Our results suggest that severity of influenza illness can be adequately assessed in the ferret model using collective measurements of nasal and systemic signs, temperatures, and nasal cellular infiltration.

Animals↗
PubMed1978

A comparison of the composition and apolipoprotein content of the lipoproteins isolated from human and ferret (Mustela putorius furo L.) serum.

1. The lipoproteins isolated at densities of less than 1.006, 1.006-1.063 and 1.063-1.21 g/ml from human and ferret (Mustela putorius furo L.) serum were compared. 2. Ferret very low density lipoprotein contained proportionately less triglyceride and more phospholipid than human. 3. Ferret low density lipoprotein contained proportionately more triglyceride and less cholesterol than human. 4. High density lipoprotein was the major lipoprotein in ferret serum. 5. The gel electrophoretic patterns of lipoprotein apoproteins and the pattern of apoprotein solubility in tetramethylurea were similar for human and ferret fractions. 6. The ferret may provide a convenient animal for the study of serum lipoprotein structure, function and metabolism.

Animals↗
PubMed2006

Common procedures in the pet ferret.

The domestic ferret is an increasingly popular pet in North America and Europe and may easily be incorporated into the structure and workings of most small animal hospitals. Not only does treatment of ferrets provide case diversity and intellectual challenges to the veterinarian but it may increase revenue, because most ferret owners have several ferrets. The diagnostic and supportive care procedures used commonly in ferrets are similar to those used in dogs and cats. This article presents the common diagnostic and supportive care procedures used in ferrets, with special emphasis on some of the unique aspects that make these procedures easier to learn and perform.

Animal Diseases↗
PubMed2004

Contribution of anal scent gland and urinary odorants to mate recognition in the ferret.

Previous research [J. Neurosci. 21 (2001) 5832-5840] showed that ferrets of both sexes require olfactory signals to identify opposite-sex mating partners at a distance. The present experiments assessed the contributions of anal scent gland and urinary odorants to these preferences. Sexually experienced, ovohysterectomized female and castrated male ferrets were injected daily with estradiol benzoate and testosterone propionate, respectively. When tested in an airtight Y-maze, subjects of both sexes preferred to approach volatile odors emitted from opposite- versus same-sex stimulus ferrets that were anesthetized and placed in the goal boxes, regardless of whether the anal scent glands of stimulus ferrets had been surgically removed or left intact. Subjects of each sex showed an equal preference to approach volatile odors emitted from anesthetized opposite-sex ferrets that were scent-gland intact as opposed to descented. Female subjects preferred to approach volatile anal scent gland odorants, as well as urinary odorants from male, as opposed to female conspecifics. Male subjects preferred to approach volatile anal scents from females versus males; however, males showed no preference for female over male urinary odorants. Our results suggest that anal scent gland odorants are sufficient, but not required, for mate recognition in the ferret. Instead, a combination of body odorants including, but not restricted to, those derived from anal scent gland secretions apparently underlie olfactory sex discrimination and partner preference in this carnivore.

Animals↗
PubMed1985

Activity in the ferret: oestradiol effects and circadian rhythms.

The present study was conducted to determine whether oestradiol increases activity in the European ferret (Mustela furo), whether this effect is sexually dimorphic, and whether a 24-h rhythm is present in the ferret's daily activity. The activity of male and female adult, postpubertally gonadectomized ferrets was monitored while they were maintained singly on a 13:11 light-dark cycle, before and after implantation with oestradiol-17 beta. Gonadectomized male and female ferrets exhibited equal levels of activity, and neither sex exhibited a significant change in activity following oestradiol implantation. None of the ferrets exhibited a strong circadian rhythm, although weak 24-h rhythms and shorter harmonic rhythms were present. Golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), monitored in an identical manner, exhibited strong circadian rhythms. It was concluded that oestradiol administration may not cause an increase in activity in the ferret, and that this species lacks a strong circadian activity rhythm.

Activity Cycles↗
PubMed1998

Molecular mimicry of ferret gastric epithelial blood group antigen A by Helicobacter mustelae.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: Molecular mimicry of Lewis blood group antigens by Helicobacter pylori may be involved in immune evasion by the bacteria and in the pathogenesis of chronic atrophic gastritis. Helicobacter mustelae infects ferrets naturally, causing gastritis, and may be involved in ulcerogenesis. The aim of this study was to determine if H. mustelae shows a similar form of molecular mimicry. METHODS: Antibodies raised against H. mustelae were used to stain ferret gastric tissue by immunoblotting, immunohistochemistry, and flow cytometry. Epitopes recognized by cross-reactivity were characterized by proteinase K and sodium metaperiodate treatment. RESULTS: H. mustelae antiserum reacted with H. mustelae and with ferret gastric tissue. Absorption of the antiserum with H. mustelae or ferret and rabbit gastric tissue removed the cross-reactive antibodies. Antibodies reacted with a blood group antigen A-like structure on ferret gastric epithelial cells and H. mustelae lipopolysaccharide. CONCLUSIONS: H. mustelae expresses a blood group-like antigen as part of its lipopolysaccharide that may be used as a method of immune evasion by mimicry of gastric epithelial cells. The cross-reactivity shown by H. mustelae-specific antibodies with gastric mucosa may suggest a role for autoantibodies in the pathogenesis of H. mustelae-induced gastritis in ferrets.

ABO Blood-Group System↗
PubMed2002

Effect of sex steroids and coital experience on ferrets' preference for the smell, sight and sound of conspecifics.

Previous research showed that ferrets of both sexes recognize potential opposite-sex mates on the basis of volatile body odors. We compared the ability of estrogen and androgen treatments to activate a preference in gonadectomized male and female ferrets for distal cues (volatile body odors alone or volatile odors+sight+sounds) from male versus female stimulus ferrets using an airtight Y-maze and a "stimulus proximity" or a "discrete trials" testing paradigm. Sexually naive, gonadectomized male and female ferrets that received either testosterone propionate (TP) or estradiol benzoate (EB) spent equal time in proximity to goal boxes that provided either volatile odors alone or odors+sight+sounds of male and female stimulus animals. After they received coital experience, male and female subjects (treated with either EB or TP) showed a significant preference for both types of opposite-sex stimuli. When discrete trials tests were given to these ferrets prior to receiving coital experience, EB-treated females preferred to approach odor only cues, as well as odors+sight+sounds of stimulus males, and this preference was further strengthened after coital experience. Sexually naive, TP-treated males preferred to approach volatile odor cues from stimulus females; however, these animals showed an equal preference for odors+sight+sounds of stimulus females and males. Again, after coital experience, males' preference for both sets of cues from stimulus females was significantly enhanced. Thus, in sexually naive ferrets, discrete trials, but not stimulus proximity tests, revealed a preference for distal cues (body odors with or without concurrent sight and sounds) from opposite-sex conspecifics in subjects of both sexes. Coital experience significantly enhanced these preferences for heterosexual distal cues under both testing paradigms.

Animal Communication↗