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PubMed1997

The development of forgiveness in the context of adolescent friendship conflict in Korea.

A developmental pattern of understanding interpersonal forgiveness is proposed and examined with 30 junior high and 30 college students in Seoul, Korea. Three questions are asked: Does the developmental sequence in understanding forgiveness relate to age? Is there a relation between the understanding of forgiveness and the degree of forgiveness offered to one's offending friend? Is there a relation between the way people understand forgiveness and how they go about restoring an actual friendship in conflict? All participants had serious and unfair conflicts with their close friends during the past 5 to 6 months. Results support a developmental sequence in Korea and the observed relation between the sequence and actual friendship restoration strategies. There was at least partial statistical support for the relation between understanding forgiveness and the participants' forgiving behaviour in real life situations. Implications are drawn for the study and implementation of forgiveness in adolescents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1995

A preliminary description of nonschool-based friendship in young high-risk children.

This study explored friendships in a sample of 51 high-risk preschool-aged children. Thirty-eight children were placed in foster care (25 placed with their siblings and 13 separated from their siblings). Thirteen children, receiving preventive services, were living at home with their biological parents and siblings. Chi-square, ANOVA, and paired t-tests were used to test for between-group and within-subject differences in the target children's friendships. The results demonstrated that the majority of the high-risk children had a ''best friend." However, the foster children all had friends who could be described as quasi-siblings. The results suggest that foster care placement and the presence of siblings may influence the nature of a child's interactions with nonrelated peers.

Child↗
PubMed2005

Friend's drinking behaviour and adolescent alcohol consumption: the moderating role of friendship characteristics.

Friends are presumed to exert a substantial influence on young people's drinking patterns. The current study focused on the effects of the best friend's drinking behaviour on the alcohol consumption of 12-14-year-old adolescents. Furthermore, we hypothesized friendship characteristics (i.e., reciprocity and sociometric status differences) to moderate the extent in which adolescents had been influenced by their best friends. Longitudinal data of 1276 adolescents and their best friends were used to examine whether the adolescent's friend's drinking behaviour, reciprocity of the friendship, and status differences between friends affected the magnitude of change in the adolescent's drinking behaviour. The findings showed that best friend's drinking behaviour is related to adolescent's drinking both cross-sectionally and longitudinally. Cross-sectionally, this association was particularly strong between mutual friends and friends with lower status. In longitudinal analyses, a different picture emerged. Respondents were most likely to adopt their friend's drinking behaviour when it was a unilateral friend with a higher status.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Adolescents' outcome expectancies about relational aggression within acquaintanceships, friendships, and dating relationships.

Adolescents' (N = 292) relational aggression and outcome expectancies for relational aggression in three different relationship contexts (acquaintanceship, friendship, and dating) were assessed. With respect to each type of relationship, adolescents were questioned about the emotional and dyadic consequences of relational aggression, and about whether the victim of relational aggression would retaliate. It was also of interest to assess whether adolescents' personal involvement in relational aggression was associated with these judgments. The results suggest that adolescents' involvement in relational aggression and outcome expectancies for relational aggression often varies by gender, age, relationship context, and type of relational aggression. Additionally, in several instances, adolescents' personal involvement in relational aggression was associated with outcome expectancies for relational aggression. For example, after gender and age had been accounted for, participants' own relational aggression predicted beliefs about whether the victim of relational aggression would want to continue a friendship and a dating relationship. Implications of the results and future directions for research are discussed.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Linkages among adolescent girls' romantic relationships, best friendships, and peer networks.

This study examined the linkages among girls' best friendships and romantic relationships and accounted for the level of dating involvement as a moderating variable. Social exchange and Sullivan's socioemotional theories served as guides in this process. Questionnaires were administered to 446 girls aged 15-19 years. Results showed that: (a) dating is associated with more positive and less negative interactions with best friends; (b) increasing age and dating involvement are linked with increased reliance on romantic partners; (c) romantic relationships have more negative interactions than best friendships; and (d) peer-network size and structure is related to dating behaviour. Mid to late adolescence is a time when girls shift attention away from friends and towards romantic partners.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Influence and selection processes in friendships and adolescent smoking behaviour: the role of parental smoking.

Concerning the role of parental smoking on development of adolescent smoking, most studies have exclusively focused on the direct effects of parents' smoking on youths' smoking. However, parental smoking may also play an indirect role by affecting youths' susceptibility to peer influences and by affecting friendship selection. Data were from a three-wave short-term longitudinal study of 1595 adolescents. Findings showed high similarities in smoking between reciprocal friends. Additionally, friend's smoking and parents' smoking were moderately related to adolescent smoking onset, but parents' smoking did not moderate the prospective association between best friend's smoking and adolescent smoking. Finally, parental smoking seemed to affect the selection of new friends: In particular, adolescents with smoking parents were most likely to become affiliated with smoking friends. There was no evidence that parental smoking affected termination of friendships.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2005

Friendship group identification, multidimensional self-concept, and experience of developmental tasks in adolescence.

This study applied a social identity perspective to the study of adolescent self-concept and social development. British adolescents aged 14-15 years (N=114) completed a questionnaire which asked them to: (i) rate their degree of identification with a school-based friendship group; (ii) complete a measure of multi-dimensional self-concept; and (iii) report their experiences of a variety of personal, relational and socio-institutional (e.g., achieving economic independence) developmental tasks. Compared to low identifiers, participants who were highly identified with a friendship group reported highest levels of self-esteem; and these differences were most marked in non-academic domains of self. High identifiers also displayed higher levels of general self-esteem and reported more positive experiences of personal and relational developmental tasks. The discussion focuses on the potential benefits to understanding of social developmental processes that can be derived from a consideration of adolescents' subjective appraisals of their peer relations.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2006

Mechanisms through which drug, sex partner, and friendship network characteristics relate to risky needle use among high risk youth and young adults.

Drug injector social networks are a primary social space in which risky needle use behaviors associated with HIV transmission occur, but the mechanisms through which these social networks influence risky needle use are unclear. This study investigated two mechanisms, social support and social regulation, through which injection drug users' social networks might relate to risky needle use behaviors. We investigated how these mechanisms work in three types of social networks, namely, drug user, sex partner, and friendship networks. Data are from a study of HIV risk and protective behaviors of youth and young adults, ages 14-43, in the United States who were injection drug users and/or the sexual partners of users (N = 277). The three types of networks were constructed based on information respondents provided about their drug use partners, sexual partners, and friends. The networks were characterized by structural (i.e., size and density) and interactional (i.e., multiplexity and closeness) characteristics. We conducted tests for mediation using ordered probit models and multiple linear regression. In the drug networks, social regulation partially meditated the relationship between multiplexity and risky needle use (p<.10). In the sex partner networks, emotional support partially mediated the relationship between network size and risky needle use (p<.001), fully mediated the relationship between network closeness and risky needle use (p<.001), and partially mediated the relationship between multiplexity and risky needle use (p<.01). Mediators were not identified in the friendship networks. The findings demonstrate that network mechanisms explaining risky needle use differ for drug user and sex partner networks in ways consistent with the functional nature of each type of network tie.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2004

Adolescent friendship as a dynamic system: entropy and deviance in the etiology and course of male antisocial behavior.

A dynamic systems framework was applied to understand the influence of friendship on antisocial behavior from childhood (age 9-10) through adulthood (age 24-25) for Oregon Youth Study males (N = 206). Boys were videotaped interacting with a friend at ages 14, 16, and 18, and deviant content and interpersonal processes were independently coded. Conditional dyadic interpersonal processes were studied as a communication system and summarized by an index of information entropy (F. Attneave, 1959). High entropy scores represent disorganized, unpredictable patterns of interaction, whereas low entropy scores reflect an organized dialogue. Conversations of early-onset antisocial boys and their best friends were less organized and included more deviant content than those of well-adjusted controls. Prediction analyses, however, revealed an interaction between entropy and deviant talk. Consistent with expectation, males with well-organized interactions (i.e., low entropy) but elevated levels of deviant content were most likely to continue antisocial behavior into adulthood. Findings suggest that individual risk for maladaptation may be amplified by early adolescent friendship dynamics organized around deviance.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1999

Children's interactions in triads: behavioral profiles and effects of gender and patterns of friendships among members.

In all, 56 triads of same-sex 3rd-, 4th-, and 5th-grade children were observed during an intimate discussion, a cooperative puzzle task, a competitive game, and free play. Observers coded triadic interaction using a Q sort and individual process ratings. Of particular interest was how gender and the pattern of friendship ties among group members related to children's behavior. Triads of girls were more intimate, exchanged more information, and were less aggressive than were triads of boys. Analyses of within-gender variability revealed 2 prototypical types of triads among boys but only 1 among girls. Girls and boys expressed similar attitudes toward triadic interaction in postsession interviews. However, girls', but not boys', attitudes were closely linked to the quality of interactions during the session. For both sexes, interaction was not strongly influenced by the initial configuration of friendship ties among triad members.

Age Factors↗
PubMed2006

Attachment organization as a moderator of the link between friendship quality and adolescent delinquency.

This study examined attachment organization as a moderator of the link between the quality of the adolescents' current friendships and delinquent behavior. Data were gathered from a moderately at-risk sample of 71 ethnically and socioeconomically diverse adolescents. Results revealed a moderating effect of attachment organization (as assessed by the AAI) such that strong and supportive friendships were linked to lower levels of delinquency, but only when adolescents' attachment organization reflected an orientation toward heightened attention to attachment relationships (via preoccupation or via clear lack of dismissal of attachment). These results suggest that attachment organization plays an important role in delineating the conditions under which the qualities of social relationships are likely to be linked to important psychosocial outcomes.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1984

Homogeneity of friendship networks of elderly blacks and whites.

Race and sex were found to be the most salient parameters of friendship. Multivariate analyses revealed that blacks tend to have less homogeneous friendship networks than their white counterparts only in regard to marital status. How close respondents felt to their friends, on the average, was positively related to the level of age and sex homogeneity of the network. Respondent's education was positively related to all five types of homogeneity. It was found that the size theorem from Blau's primitive theory of social structure accounted for some of the findings. Exceptions were in race and education homogeneity, where discrimination and social distance figured into possible explanations.

Black or African American↗
PubMedDate not supplied

The Friendship Club: an after-school program for children with Asperger syndrome.

The Friendship Club is a program designed and implemented by occupational therapy students and faculty to help teach children, ages 8-15, activities related to friendship and skills necessary to maintain friends. The program, a joint effort between university partners, a local parent support group, and a local Rotary Club that provided funding, was deemed successful by participants, parents, and leaders. This article reviews the interdisciplinary development of the club, the program, and its outcomes. Recommendations for the group's continuation are supported by feedback obtained from participants and their parents.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1991

The meaning of nursing home friendships.

This research report on the social networks of institutionalized elderly people describes four types of networks and focuses on resident-resident interaction. Friendship themes of intimacy, social support, reciprocity, and companionship provide a basis for examining similarities in and differences between the network types. Discussion draws on the study results through examination of the meaning of friendship and interpretation of life-span themes.

Adaptation, Psychological↗
PubMed2003

Diffusion-limited friendship network: a model for six degrees of separation.

A dynamic model of a society is studied where each person is an uncorrelated and noninteracting random walker. A dynamical random graph represents the acquaintance network of the society whose nodes are the individuals and links are the pairs of mutual friendships. This network exhibits a different percolationlike phase transition in all dimensions. On introducing simultaneous death and birth rates in the population, we show that the friendship network shows the six degrees of separation for ever after where the precise value of the network diameter depends on the death/birth rate. A susceptible-infected-susceptible-type model of disease spreading shows that this society always remains healthy if the population density is less than certain threshold value.

Journal Article↗
PubMed2001

Net effect of memory collaboration: how is collaboration affected by factors such as friendship, gender and age?

The purpose of the study was to investigate explicit spatial and verbal collaborative memory performance. Factors such as friendship, age and gender were chosen for ecological and theoretical reasons. In Experiment 1 friendship and age were studied. The task was to retrieve the location of 25 pictures, which were presented in a 5 x 5-matrix grid. All participants retrieved once individually and once dyadically. Dyads were compared to the predicted base line, i.e., the pooled score from two participants working on their own (the same participants as in the dyad). Based on cognitive development aspects and collaboration data, it was predicted that the young collaborating dyads would not be able to reduce the net negative effects of collaboration to the same extent as older dyads. The findings revealed that, (1) dyadic collaboration affected spatial memory performance negatively, i.e., net negative effects of collaboration; (2) older (15-years-old), as opposed to young (7-years-old) dyads, reduced the net negative effects of collaboration and; (3) friend dyads, regardless of age, were able to reduce the net negative effect. In experiment 2, gender differences were studied in two explicit memory tasks. The purpose was to investigate if earlier findings of collaboration can be generalised to another ecological aspect of group composition, i.e., gender. Gender differences were studied at individual and group level. The results suggest that gender related memory differences exist on an individual and dyadic level in terms of absolute scores. Women remember explicit memory tasks to a greater degree than men. No main effect was found for gender in collaboration, i.e., both genders suffered compared to predicted potential.

Adolescent↗
PubMed1994

A study of friendship characteristics and problem behaviors among middle adolescents.

Exploratory and confirmatory factor analyses were used with a 15-item adolescent self-report measure to identify 4 salient friendship characteristics--Reciprocity of Relations, Overt Hostility, Covert Hostility, and Self-Disclosure--with a sample of about 1,100 middle adolescents. Higher levels of Overt and Covert Hostility and lower levels of Reciprocity of Relations with one's closest friend were associated with higher levels of alcohol consumption, percentage of friends who drink, delinquent activity, depressive symptoms, and suicidal behaviors. Self-Disclosure was positively correlated with some adolescent problem behaviors, possibly reflecting developmental changes toward greater interpersonal involvement with friends in concert with age normative tasks such as increased alcohol use. Longitudinal, prospective analyses indicated that delinquent activity and depressive symptoms were significant lagged predictors of Overt and Covert Hostility, but that friendship characteristics were not significant lagged predictors of adolescent problem behaviors.

Adolescent↗
PubMed2003

"For the hatching of our hearts": friendship, pastoral care, and the formation for ministry.

The author explores the notion of friendship by drawing on personal and ministry experience, as well as on philosophical and biblical insights, in order to suggest a dynamic practice of pastoral care and a process of ministry formation which transcends the professional paradigm and the peership principle. He suggests that the power to bless, the ability to extend grace, and the potential for change are dynamics of friendship which are effective both in pastoral care and in ministry formation.

Chaplaincy Service, Hospital↗